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A useful distinction in AI-ED is between formalised domains and the more open-ended domains (‘domain’ means subject area to be taught). In relation to domains such as mathematics and Newtonian dynamics there are clear targets, correct answers and a reasonable clear and concise structure to follow for success. Whereas in open-ended domains such as music composition, there are in general, no clear goals, no set criteria to follow and no correct answers.

The focus is based upon, as mentioned earlier, ‘Compose something interesting’ (Levitt, 1985). Rittel and Webber (1984) describe this particular problem in domains as ‘wicked problems’. In such domains there cannot be a definitive formulation for the problem or the answer. Wicked domains such as music composition require learners to not just solve problems but also seek problems (Cook, 1994). The term problem seeking is used in a number of disciplines such as animal behaviour (Menzel, 1991). Cook (1994) imported the term into AI in Education in particular reference to the sense of philosopher Lipman (1991). In this sense Cook (1994) refers to the term ‘problem seeking’ as follows:

Problems are treated as ill-defined and open-ended

There is a continual intertwining of problem specification and solution

Criteria for completion is very limited

Context greatly affects the interpretation of the problem

Problems are always open re-interpretation and re-conceptualisation

In relation to expressive performing arts and music composition there is no goal or problem to be solved. The learner must find or create goals and problems which then may need to be revised, modified and rejected where best suited to his/her taste.

2. Computer-Aided Instruction

It is worth considering briefly the music education programs that negligibly use AI as a background to AI approaches in education. Historically, computers used in music, and most other subjects, were associated with the theory of learning behaviourism. These particular systems (branching teaching programs) stepped through the following algorithm (O’Shea and Holland, 1983),

Present a ‘frame’ to the student i.e.

Present the student with pre-stored material (textual or audio visual)

Solicit a response from the student

Compare the response with pre-stored alternative responses

Give any pre-stored comment associated with the response

Look up the next frame to present on the basis of the response

An example of this kind of system was the GUIDO ear-training system (Hofstetter, 1981). Branching teaching programs tend to respond to the user in a manner that has more or less been explicitly pre-planned by the author. Therefore, this tends to limit the approach to a simple treatment.

Multimedia and Hypermedia

Multimedia and hypermedia has had a great impact on music education and transformed music education software programs, giving a different emphasis from the earlier behaviourist programs. Recent educational music programs such as Seventh Heaven, Ear Trainer, Interval and Listen aim to provide practic本论文由英语论文网提供整理，提供论文代写，英语论文代写，代写论文，代写英语论文，代写留学生论文，代写英文论文，留学生论文代写相关核心关键词搜索。