ties in which
social gender roles are clearly distinct (i.e., men are supposed
to be assertive, tough, and focused on material success
whereas women are supposed to be more modest, tender,
and concerned with the quality of life).” Conversely, “femininity
pertains to societies in which social gender roles overlap
(i.e., both men and women are supposed to be modest,
tender, and concerned with the quality of life)” (p. 83). Japan
and Austria outranked all other cultures in the measure of
masculinity, whereas Sweden and the Netherlands were at
the bottom.
Hofstede (1991, p. 28) defines power distance as “the extent
to which the less powerful members of institutions and
organizations within a country expect and accept that power
is distributed unequally.” In other words, countries and/or
individuals with a large power distance expect and desire
inequalities among people and believe in authoritarian values
and a centralized system. Hong Kong and France are
examples of high-power-distance cultures, and Austria and
Denmark are examples of low-power-distance cultures.
The final dimension of cultural values is long-term orientation,
which incorporates values such as persistence (perseverance),
the ordering of relationships by status and its
observation, thrift, and having a sense of shame. The other
end of this dimension, short-term orientation, emphasizes
values such as personal steadiness and stability; protecting
“face”; respect for tradition; and the recip英语论文网 【http://www.51lunwen.org】rocation of greetings,
favors, and gifts (Hofstede 1991). The differences
between these two orientations are mostly based on Confucian
dynamism and are characterized by the philosophy of
the East versus the West, virtue versus truth, and dynamic
versus static. Hong Kong and Taiwan both show long-term
orientation, whereas Spain and the United Kingdom are at
the other end of this continuum.
Some researchers have argued that the investigation of cultural
dimensions at the national level leaves the possibility
of “stereotyping” because distinct subcultures exist within a
given country (Donthu and Yoo 1998; Lenartowicz and Roth
2001). The study of national-level cultural dimensions
32 Pallab Paul, Abhijit Roy, and Kausiki Mukhopadhyay
assumes that all individual members of a country exhibit the
same cultural values (e.g., all Indians have a long-term orientation,
and all Americans have a short-term orientation). To
avoid such broad generalization, individual-level cultural
values must be measured and then linked to marketing
ethics, which is an individual-level characteristic (Yoo and
Donthu 2002). Therefore, our study also aims to investigate
the effect of individual cultural dimensions on marketing
ethics for each country. Afterward, a cross-country comparison
will help determine whether there are any important
insights into the relationship between cultural values and
marketing ethics as a function of the national culture.
The concept of culture implic
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