the United States has a low PDI score of 40 (ranked
38). Therefore, we expect that people from India and the
United States will show different levels of marketing ethical
norms because they have diverse PDI scores. The PDI scores
for India and the United States were 77 (ranked 10/11) and
40 (ranked 38), respectively. In particular, we propose the
following hypotheses:
H4a: As a cultural dimension, power distance negatively
influences the levels of marketing ethical norms in
each country.
H4b: In our study, India will have higher PDI scores than
the United States, and this will correspondingly
indicate lower levels of marketing ethical norms in
India.
Finally, people with a long-term orientation tend to have a
sense of harmonious and stable hierarchy and complemen38
Pallab Paul, Abhijit Roy, and Kausiki Mukhopadhyay
tarity of roles, support interrelatedness through social contracts,
stress the keeping of commitments, and have concerns
about the demands of virtue. Schwartz and Bilsky (1987)
show that such people are more likely to obey the rules and
conform to social expectations and norms to avoid a sense of
shame or guilt. Therefore, they are more likely to adhere to
marketing ethical norms because they are eager to save face
and not damage their reputation. Therefore, we expect that
people from India, which has a long-term orientation index,
or LTO, score of 56 (ranked 7 among 22 countries studied by
Hofstede [1991]), will comply with marketing eth英语论文网 【http://www.51lunwen.org】ical norms
more so than people from the United States, which has an
LTO score of 29 (ranked 17). Thus:
H5a: As a cultural dimension, long-term orientation
positively influences the levels of marketing ethical
norms in each country.
H5b: In our study, India will have higher LTO scores
than the United States, and this will correspondingly
indicate higher levels of marketing ethical
norms in India.
Table 1 illustrates our hypotheses.
Following the work of Lenartowicz and Roth (2004), who
note that data of “intergroup cross-cultural studies” may be
collected at the individual level and analyzed at the
group/country level (for other examples of studies using a
similar rationale, see Gibson 1999; Kirkman and Shapiro
2001), we collected data from regular and executive MBA
students in India and the United States, using a selfadministered,
paper-and-pencil, short questionnaire as an
instrument. Appendixes A and B list the items we used to
measure the cultural norms and the marketing ethical practices
constructs, respectively. The first part of the questionnaire
consisted of a 24-item measure of marketing ethical
norms originally derived from the American Marketing Association
code and validated by a study that used randomly
selected American Marketing Association members as participants.
This scale has been used in various studies in the
United States and other countries and has been shown to be
reliable and valid (Klein 1999; Rallapalli, Vitell, and Szeinb
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