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Presage, before teaching takes place, are divided into two parts (Biggs, 1996, 2001): student factors are relatively stable and learning-related; teaching context refers to the context that set by teachers or institutions. Details of these two parts can be seen in Figure2 above.

Process, during teaching, refers to the way students actually handle the task (Biggs, 1996). As a result of students' perceptions of the teaching context, and of their motives and predispositions, attributions, they engage the task by compromise their approach to learning with high or low cognitive level, that may be appropriate/deep or inappropriate/surface, finally end up with different outcomes (Biggs, 2001).

Product, refers to the outcome of teaching achieved, which may be correspondingly be quantitative recall, or complex structures, abstract conceptualizing, self information and so on (Biggs, 1996, 2001).

The variables that constitute the 3P model 'do not form a simple linear path from presage to process to product', because 'each component of the system interacts with all the other components until equilibrium is reached' (Watkins, 1996, p. 7). Therefore, Watkins argues that shifting any one factor will not lead to a desired satisfactory outcome.

Considerable research has been carried out to identify the relation between students' approaches to learning and their learning outcomes. There is no doubt that a reasonably high degree of correlation between them. However, it is not straightforward. Other variables may also at as mediating factors, for instance, the cultural influences, the assessment system, and the teaching methods (Burnett et al., 2003). Hence, researchers began their investigation from a completely different perspective besides western context - The Asian context.

中国学习者的悖论——The Paradox of the Chinese Learner

The Confucian-Heritage Cultures

The researchers based on the 'emic' approach instead of 'etic' approach to demonstrate a satisfactory degree of cross-cultural validity in the research, which uses only concepts that emerge from a specific culture (Watkins, 1996), for example in comparing Eastern and Asian concepts of learning. Asia specifically refers to those Ho (1991, cited in Biggs, 1996) defined as 'Confucian-heritage' cultures (CHC): China (some research samples are taken separately from mainland, Hong Kong and Taiwan), Singapore, Japan, and Korea all together with their educational systems, and usually the main focus being on Chinese CHC students.

According to Biggs and Watkins (1996), in the west, polarities such as memorizing versus understanding, intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation, achievement motivation as an ego versus a social motivation, collective versus as individual orientation, controllable attributions (effort, skill) versus uncontrollable attributions (ability), are commonly useful, because they were derived in the West. However, these same contrasts appear to create paradoxes when apply to CHC students. Thus, the paradox presented as follows: How is it possible that students directed to memorization demonstrate high achievement (Marton et al., 1996)?

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