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t may be termed a hybridized regime, whereby micro-management and market-based solutions continue to be pursued, but are now being tempered by protections to the baseline terms and conditions determined at the governmental level.

雇主时代的模式——The model employer era

The basis of local government employment relations practice from the end of the Second World War up to the 1970s has commonly been seen as having been centred on the notion of the 'model employer'. Whilst this notion has been legitimately challenged as overly simplistic (Thornley, 1995; Thornley et al., 2000), as a heuristic it nevertheless remains useful as a comparator of the changing ethos of what constitutes 'good' employment practice in the sector. The foundations of this approach can be traced to the Whitley structures for employer union interaction brought into local government in 1940 (Thomson and Beaumont, 1978) that were based on the principles of consultation (rather than bargaining), consensus and of national, rather than local level exchange; structures which acted to prompt the trade unions involved in local government to place an emphasis on centralized decision making arrangements and the servicing of members by full-time officials. Over time, national level management-union relationships came to encompass collective bargaining, as well as joint consultation, though the assumptions of consensus that underpinned this system became increasingly anachronistic as bargaining became more confrontational in the 1970s against the background of local government budgetary constraints (Fairbrother, 1996). This rise in adversarialism, in turn, contributed to a breakup of the party political 'post war consensus' on employment in public services occurred, most notably through the 1979 'winter of discontent', which was disproportionately located within local government. This break up came to fruition with the coming into power of a Conservative government in 1979 and the imposition of a 'market state' approach to public sector employment relations.

市场国家的时代——The Market State Era

The market state approach towards employment in local government comprehensively rejected the notion of the 'model employer' on the neo-classical, Public Choice premise (Niskanen, 1971) that workers, through their unions, will always seek to insulate themselves from the need to adapt their working practices to improve productivity. In turn, this was seen to be compounded by a style of management - the now maligned, 'public administration' approach (Pollitt, 1993) - that neither had the threat nor the incentive of the competitive market to confront such behaviour. The introduction of compulsory competitive tendering (CCT) sought to deal with these problems by creating 'contestable markets' under which public services were opened up to competition. This involved in-house, direct service organizations (DSOs) being compelled to compete for existing work with private contractors on the basis that: . . . the terms and conditions of employment by contractors of their workers or the composition of, the arrangements for the promotion, transfer or training of or the other opportunities afforded to, their workforces. (HMSO, 1988)

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