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hange is driven and energized by the interaction of three forces: personal, extarpersonal and goal hiatus. Personal forces include decision makers, implementers and consumers. Extarpersonal forces are both tangible like facilities and equipment, and intangible, like policies and traditions. Goal hiatus describes the discrepancy between the aspiration towards particular institutional goal and the achievement of this goal. These three forces influence each of the five stages and effect both the pace and extent of the desired change. Leaders must attend to each of these forces and modify their strategies accordingly if any change is to be successfully implemented.

Strategy Models

The literature includes numerous descriptive frameworks intended to facilitate and guide the change process. Many of these models evolved from the realization that change is a complex process that occurs on many levels. As Lipitt (1973) argues, planned change can take place in four areas: knowledge, skill, attitude and values. These multiple dimensions require different strategies if change efforts are to succeed and a number of models have been proposed.

Chin and Benne (1976) identified three types of strategies: empirical-rational, normative-reeducative, and power-coercive. Empirical-rational strategies assume that users are both rational and motivated by self interest and, therefore, change will only occur if it is rationally justified and perceived as beneficial. On the other hand, normative-reeductive strategies assume that sociocultural norms underpin individual attitudes and values. From this perspective reconstruction of values and involvement and collaboration are important. Power-coercive strategies emphasize that the use of power, whether political or otherwise, would ensure compliance with change efforts.

Havelock (1971) also categorized the earlier works into three perspectives: research development and diffusion; social interaction; and problem solver. Research development and diffusion emphasized rational processes and planning. Social interaction focused on personal relationships and considered both social and political structure important in the change process. The problem solver perspective considered the user and his/her needs paramount and argued that the need for ownership of any change was a key component.

Tichy (1982) recognized the need to combine several distinct strategies and suggested a simple but forceful metaphor for the change process. He focused primarily on the organizational level and compared his TPC theory for managing change to a rope. He argued that three organizational areas are central to the change process: technical, political and cultural systems. He cautioned that like a rope, the change process will be weakened and unravel if these strands work at cross -purposes.

Lindquist (1978) also understood the critical importance of multiple factors, and arguing that the earlier models were too abstract, proposed a combination model. He identified four roles for adaptive and effective change leaders: rational planner, collaborator, facilitator and linker. Empirical support for Lindquist (1978) model has been provided by a study of change in 本论文由英语论文网提供整理，提供论文代写，英语论文代写，代写论文，代写英语论文，代写留学生论文，代写英文论文，留学生论文代写相关核心关键词搜索。