工业与学术之间的差距 英语论文范文 [21]
论文作者:英语论文论文属性:作业 Assignment登出时间:2014-09-19编辑:yangcheng点击率:26533
论文字数:10965论文编号:org201409172240269951语种:英语 English地区:加拿大价格:免费论文
关键词:industryacademia农业国家差距巴基斯坦
摘要:本文是一篇工业与学术之间的差距的留学生论文,巴基斯坦证面临着不断增加的问题,所以我们可以把世界上经济繁荣的国家作为榜样,然后在几乎所有认为对国家的发展有用的方面,从他们身上学习经验。
innovations showed the greatest potential for successful commercialization and then to allocate their capital and resources accordingly. As a result of this act more researchers are able to pursue research, and students have been granted more access to faculty researchers, and at some institutions, they are given opportunity to conduct their own projects (or to assist on faculty endeavors)
How it was formed? An overview
Initially in 1920s transfer of university knowledge to industry was taken to be a normal thing. Later it was realized that increasing flow of knowledge from universities to industry was necessary for economic progress and so government started to fund such research works. The government of USA formed National Institutes of Health (NIH), the National Science Foundation (NSF), and the Office of Naval Research (ONR) for basic research. The massive increase in federal support for scientific research, federally-financed technological innovations largely failed to translate into successful, widely available commercial products. Such breakthroughs were stalled in academic institutions, because there was no uniform policy to direct technological innovations from the laboratory to the marketplace. The U.S. government lacked a consistent approach to determining who held clear title to federally-financed research innovations resulting from university laboratories.
Problem in the policies
Lack of success by the federal government in promoting the adoption of new technologies by industry, because there was no government-wide policy regarding ownership of inventions made by government contractors and grantees under federal funding
Inconsistency in policies across agencies
Patents were issued but they were not licensed to the industry for development i.e. restrictions on the licensing of new technologies and
Reluctance on the part of the agencies to permit ownership of inventions to vest in
In a nut shell, the government did not give ownership of federally funded inventions to the inventing organization except in rare cases after petitions had moved through a lengthy and difficult waiver process. Instead, the government retained title and made these inventions available through nonexclusive licenses to anyone who wanted to practice them. The government remained unsuccessful in attracting private industry to license government-owned patents. As the companies did not have exclusive rights under government patents to manufacture and sell resulting products, they were not willing to invest in or develop new products knowing that the competitors would get access to it.
In 1980, however, legislators and the administration concluded that the public would benefit from a policy that permitted universities and small businesses to elect ownership of inventions made under federal funding and to become directly involved in the commercialization process. This new policy permitted exclusive licensing when combined with diligent development and transfer of an invention to the marketplace for the public good. It was understood that stimulation of the U.S. economy would occur through the licensing of new inventions from universities to businesses that would, in turn, manufacture the resulting products in the U.S.
Institutions that had not been active in this area began to establish entirely new technology
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