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approach to research developed by the Swedish researchers (Marton, 1981). The basic principle of the phenomenographic perspective of learning is that 'learning should be seen as a qualitative change in a person's way of seeing, experiencing, understanding, conceptualizing something in the real world' (Marton & Ramsden, 1988, p. 271, cited in Watkins, 1996). In the later phenomenographic writing, researchers adopted two contrasting conception of learning terminology: surface and deep learning (Marton & Saljo, 1976; Biggs, 1987; Purdie, Hattie, & Douglas, 1996; Watkins, 1996).

Three Learning Approaches

Surface learning approach is based on an intention or a motive that is external to the real purpose of the task. It only investigates minimal time and effort lasted long enough to meet the requirement, by aiming to gain satisfice instead of to satisfy (Biggs, 1996). It described a maladaptive relation between learners and tasks (Biggs, 2001).

The purpose of satisfice can well link to rote learning through using routinized procedures, as a result that knowledge will be reproduced without understanding (Biggs, 1996). This approach is relevant to the transmission model of teaching, in which the information is transferred from teachers to students, whose being passive roles and end up with low quality outcomes, such as gaining fragmented knowledge and 'missing the point' of the material (Burnett, Pillay, & Dart, 2003).

Deep learning approach is based on a perceived need, such as intrinsic motivation and interest, in order to engage the task meaningfully and appropriately by elaborating and transforming the material been studied (Burnett et al., 2003). This approach described an adaptive relation between learners and tasks (Biggs, 2001), by emphasizing learning processes in order to develop understanding, which is a clear distinction between self-regulation of study strategies that emphasize on effort and concentration (Entwistle & McCune, 2004). Therefore, the focus of deep approach is on underlying meaning, main ideas, themes, and principles (Biggs, 2001).

From the extensive elaborated concept of surface and deep learning, Marton, Dall'Alba, and Beaty (1993) gave out six qualitatively different conceptions about learning after their investigations of first-year students from an open university in Britain. They are: (1) increasing one's knowledge, (2) memorizing and reproducing, (3) applying, (4) understanding, (5) seeing something in a different way, and (6) changing as a person. The first three conceptions formed a surface or reproductive notion of learning, which really ended up with low level of learning outcome; on the contrast, the last three conceptions relatively represent a deep or constructivist notion and usually associated with more complexity of cognitive processing of learning outcomes (Van Rossum & Schenk, 1984; Martin & Ramsden, 1987, cited in Purdie et al., 1996).

Entwistle and Ramsden (1983, cited in Watkins, 1996) in developing their Approaches to Studying Inventory (ASI) as well as Biggs (1987) in developing his Learning Proces本论文由英语论文网提供整理，提供论文代写，英语论文代写，代写论文，代写英语论文，代写留学生论文，代写英文论文，留学生论文代写相关核心关键词搜索。