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aphora, it is composed of twocomponents: the anaphor and its antecedent. However, the use of it involves varioussyntactic, semantic, pragmatic, psychological, cognitive and other constraints.Therefore, the interpretation of anaphora has always been the focus of study amonglinguists, discourse analysts, text linguists, pragmatical linguists, psycho-linguists,functionalists, artificial intelligence experts, and experts specializing in languageuniversals, language acquisition, language typology, and language learning andteachingThe notion of anaphora can be understood both broadly and narrowly. As Xupoints out that:In its broadest sense, anaphora may be defined as a linguistic phenomenon inwhich an (often attenuated) expression is used to refer (back) to an entity or sensedenoted by another expression in the same text or discourse. Perceived from thisperspective, the notion of anaphora actually embraces almost all the cohesive relationof reference, substitution, ellipsis and lexical cohesion in discourse as discussed inHalliday and Hasan (1976)[1,2]Anaphora allows a writer to recall the memory of a reader items or conceptionsthat have already been mentioned in a context. For instance, anaphora can be usedwhen several different kinds of linguistic markers needed, such as personal pronouns,demonstrative pronouns, pronominal substitutions or ellipses in English. Some otherinstances, from the APHB corpus[3]and the Lancaster Anaphoric Treebank[4]willillustrate some of these different types of anaphora, in which antecedents areunderlined, and the anaphors are in bold italic type[5].
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2.2 Contemporary Approaches to Anaphora
Understanding any communication depends on the listener or reader recognizingthat some words refer to what has already been said or written (his, its, he, there, etc.).This mode of reference, anaphora, involves complicated cognitive and syntacticprocesses, which people usually perform unerringly, but which present formidableproblems for the linguist and cognitive scientist trying to explain precisely howcomprehension is achieved. Yan Huang provides an extensive and accessible overviewof the major contemporary issues surrounding anaphora and gives a critical survey ofthe many and diverse contemporary approaches to it. He provides by far the fullestcross-linguistic account yet published: Dr Huang's survey and analysis are based on arich collection of data drawn from around 450 of the world's languages[10].As is stated in the previous section, anaphora has been the focus of interest in thepast thirty years by experts working in so many different lines within or concerning thefiled of linguistics because of its importance in understanding the nature of discourseand in formulating and testing a theory of grammar . It is needless to say that there hasbeen quite an extensive literature developed in the field of anaphora study. The majorapproaches that are adopted in these studies can be broadly classified into three types,namely, the formal syntactic approach, the discourse functional approach, and the purecognitive approach.
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Chapter Three Data Collection ....... 27
3.1 Introduction.......27
3.2 Research Questions.....27
3.3 Procedures of Data Collection ........28
3.3.1 Data Collection of Corpus-based Study ........ 28
3.3.2 Data Collection of Teaching Experiment ...... 31
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