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>that enrolls nearly everyone.(Rohlen????,??).There is a strong cultural
consensus that education provides a valid criterion by which roles in soci-
ety can be allocated.The education system should ideally be the institu-
tion which provides all students with a‘level playing field’of opportunity,
in which each individual has an equal chance to obtain the highest level
of achievement possible,and which will help meet the needs of society.
The highest rewards,as well as the most responsible positions,should go
to those who do well in the educational system.(Benjamin????,???).In
other words,educational credentials and skills are key to employment,so-
cial status,and promotion in the business community.This accounts for the
paramount importance the Japanese attach to education.(Shimahara????,
??).
There is unusual consensus on the goals and means of education(Ben-
jamin????,???),although there is a relatively di?erentiated public and
private division of schools and students,and variations between individ-
ual schools in each sector.Most of anthropologist researchers put the uni-
formity of curriculum and practice into one of the features of Japanese
education system.
Behind this feature,there is the premise that humans as individuals are
all endowed with basically the same traits and abilities,so that development
is less a matter of the unfolding of various individual characteristics than of
???Education Reform in Japan:Ways Towards Quality
reaction to the social environment and the e?ort expended to meet goals.
(Singleton????,cited from Benjamin????,???).
Inherent in this view are the assumptions that education and educa-
tional environment are important,that educational opportunities will not
be‘wasted’on any individuals,and that educational institutions are respon-
sible for the learning of their pupils.(Benjamin????,???).
Educational achievement is prompted by a broad societal and educa-
tional infrastructure,of which formal schooling is just one part.(Shima-
hara????,??).Even so,some strong arguments might be raising up in the
Japanese context.Are pupils not steered to the areas that are easy for them?
Are mathematics,music,reading,art,or gymnastics all approached in the
same way,as skills to be mastered through hard work,with talent playing a
minor role?Are natural di?erences of endowment nearly insignificant?Will
all learners benefit equally from the same careful curriculum?Shunji Tanabe,Japan
Figure?j:J model Figure?a:A model
is classified clearly and the condition of promoting position is set by explicit
knowledge-based ability.The mobility barrier across the organization could
be less than the Japanese structure above.Experiences are not the straight
evidence for ability to promote to higher position in this structure.
Furthermore,in case of human resource management in education,
whole education community in region formed by many municipalities is
much concerned in Japan than the countries where recruitment is mainly
concerned on individual school base.The basic concept of this system,
whole-system perspective,has the same strategy.
In addition,we can find some symbolic facts on the school leaders
in Japan.(Tanabe????).I describe one example here:the age of school
principals in Table?.
This position is extremely dominated by those at the higher ages.For
principals in public schools,an