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Italian theory of leadership: Machiavelli described certain effective techniques for manipulation and remaining in power.
American leadership theories:
Douglas McGregor (Theory X versus Theory Y),
Rensis Likert (System 4 management)
Robert R. Blake with Jane S. Mouton (the Managerial Grid)
What these theories have in common is that they all advocate participation in the manager's decisions by his/her subordinates.
Fred Fiedler's contingency theory of leadership Fiedler suggests that different leader personalities are needed for "difficult" and "easy" situations, and that a cultural gap between superior and subordinates is one of the factors that make a situation "difficult." However, this theory does not address the kind of cultural gap in question.
Geert Hofstede’s research model:
National culture can be described by Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Individualism-Collectivism, and Masculinity-Femininity.
Power Distance measures the inequality of power distribution.
Uncertainty Avoidance shows the extent to which the society can tolerate uncertain situations and tries to avoid them.
Individualism-Collectivism indicates the relationships between people and their family members.
Masculinity-Femininity dimension measures the extent to which the dominant social values are labeled masculinity or femininity.
Different cultures in the world
Now use the Hofstede’s four dimensions to describe the different cultures:
Choose France USA Sweden Italy German-----Japan Taiwan Hong Kong Inida to analyze
1. Large Power Distance/Weak Uncertainty Avoidance: Hong Kong /India
Large Power Distance/Strong Uncertainty Avoidance: France /Italy /Japan /Taiwan
Small Power Distance/Weak Uncertainty Avoidance: USA /Sweden
Small Power Distance/Strong Uncertainty Avoidance: German
2. Large Power Distance/Collectivist: German/Taiwan/India /Hong Kong/Japan
Large Power Distance/ Individualist: France/Italy
Small Power Distance/Individualist: Sweden/USA
Small Power Distance/Collectivist: none
3. Weak Uncertainty Avoidance/Feminine: Sweden
Weak Uncertainty Avoidance/Masculine: USA/Hong Kong/India
Strong Uncertainty Avoidance/ Feminine: France/Taiwan
Strong Uncertainty Avoidance/ Masculine: Germany/Italy/Japan
Now we see clearly the cultures of different countries by Hofstede’s framework.
Generally speaking, we can classify these countries above into two categories: western and oriental cultures.
Though the countries belong to either category may differ others in the same group in some dimensions. We can see that western countries usually have relatively small power distance and individualism. On the contrary, eastern countries have larger power distance and collectivism. The other two dimensions don’t have the tendency.
In the eastern and western cultures, there still exist differences. For example, northern and southern Europeans are distinctly different in Uncertainty Avoidance and Feminine/Masculine.
And the same differences exist in Japan Taiwan-India/Hong Kong as well. The reason why India and Hong Kong share the Low Uncertainty Avoidance may be found in the history that they both be ruled by Britain for a long time. One interesting thing we can know from Hofstede’s framework i本论文由英语论文网提供整理，提供论文代写，英语论文代写，代写论文，代写英语论文，代写留学生论文，代写英文论文，留学生论文代写相关核心关键词搜索。