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performance, market return, market value to book value, price per share and share price appreciation. Accounting-based measures which are more commonly used are: size (logarithm of total assets), asset age, return on assets (ROA), return on equity (ROE) and 5-year return on sales (ROS) (Griffin and Mahon, 1997, p. 11-14).

Several studies have been using different types of corporate social performance measures. However, it remains a challenge for many researchers to find a good measure for corporate social performance. As these measures do not deal with hard data, usefulness of some measures that were used in the past is questionable. Some of these measures are merely an assessment of the corporation's social performance by an outsider. However, such assessments are not always a good reflection of the real performance. Certain relative rankings of corporate social performance, that are mainly based on the image of a corporation rather than the firm's actual CSR performances, are hardly suitable to explain the relationship between CSR and financial performance. In order to obtain a representative corporate social performance measure Griffin and Mahon (1997) proposed to base empirical research on multiple corporate social performance measures instead of a single one. This approach will help in mitigating both constraints and impact that come with the use a single measure. Van Beurden and Gössling (2008) divide the different measurements of corporate social performance in three categories: social concern, corporate action (such as philanthropy, social programs, and pollution control) and corporate reputation ratings (KLD and Fortune). Each of these measurements, while offering some benefits, has limitations. The Fortune rating of corporate social performance tends to be viewed as a measure of overall management of a firm rather than being specific to corporate social performance. Further it is highly correlated with other measures. Many measures are either one-dimensional and may not properly reflect the overall level of a company's corporate social performance or are difficult to apply consistently across the range of industries and companies that need to be studied.

This problem refers to the nature of the data used in some existing literature. In some surveys very small samples are used and this could lead to results that are not representative. The use of a small number of studies decreases the validity and generalizability of the results. Furthermore, many studies base their theoretical framework and findings on literature and material that is outdated. The relevance of studies undertaken in the 1970s and 1980s may be limited because concern over corporate social performance was still in its infancy and may not be entirely relevant to practices considered to be socially responsible by today's standards. Cross-sectional empirical studies tend to measure both corporate social and financial performance in the same single year, and therefore, the long-term consequences of certain decisions affecting stakeholder are left unexplored.

Studies sometimes use models that are misspecified in the sense that they omit variables that have been shown to be important determinants of profitability (McWilliams and Siegel, 2000). Without the inclusion of variables that may influence a firm's financial performance, estimated parameters on corporate social performance will be biased. The m本论文由英语论文网提供整理，提供论文代写，英语论文代写，代写论文，代写英语论文，代写留学生论文，代写英文论文，留学生论文代写相关核心关键词搜索。