英语论文网

ational perspectives. In societies, culture is seen as overarching beliefs that endure and only develop gradually over a long time periods and it is not in the sphere of influence of the school leader (Dimmock & Walker, 2002). Societal cultures have a set of dimensions that represent key characteristic values underpinning societies, and such dimensions can be presented in every culture, but at different degrees (Dimmock & Walker, 2002). Organisational culture is described as the basic assumptions, shared values, and beliefs of organisational members about the routines or activities of the organizations and the interpersonal relationships in those settings (Cunliffe, 2008; Mills, Dye & Mills, 2009; Yukl, 2002). Similarly, organisational culture can be seen as the ‘social glue’ that binds organisations together (Mills et al., 2009; Prosser, 1999). This view is backed up by Bolman and Deal (2008) who describe culture as the superglue that holds and unites people, and boosts them to accomplish desired ends. A culture that focuses on reliable, efficient operations without mistakes may reduce members’ encouragement in taking initiative in resolving problems while a culture with strong values for flexibility, learning, and participation can support workforce empowerment (Yukl, 2002).

There are different ways of viewing and perceiving culture. One of the most common methods for analysing culture is Schein’s three-level model of culture, namely artifacts, espoused beliefs and values, and basic underlying assumptions (Schein, 2010). To elaborate these cultural characteristics, he explains that artifacts involve structures and processes that are manifest, feelable, and observable but hard to decipher. The espoused values and beliefs are associated with ideals, goals, aspirations, ideologies and rationalisations while the third level includes unconscious, taken-for-granted values, beliefs that determine thought, feeling, perception and behaviour. In addition, an alternative model of looking at culture is from (Denison, 1990), the four-type model of culture. The model includes bureaucratic cultures, which focus on consistency, control, reliability to rules and procedures; clan cultures emphasize commitment, involvement and participation; mission cultures are concerned with employees oriented towards accomplishing organisational goals, visions and values; and adaptability cultures centre on flexibility, empowerment and learning.

Apart from the models, culture, in some manners, is a source of coercion and domination that are used to control or manage people (Ogbor, 2001). Peterson and Deal (1998) informs that culture plays a very influential and significant role in any educational setting. In schools, culture is seen as a holistic entity that exists and influences everyone. School culture, in a deeper sense, is shared among teachers with their teaching. Therefore, it is called culture of teaching. By clarifying this view, Hargreaves (1994) describes that culture of teaching consists of beliefs, values, and assumptions of doing things among communities of teachers who had shared common sense to handle similar demands and constraints over decades.

Culture is an axis of organisations and is central to all elements of organisational life because it mirrors thought, feeling and acting, thus comprehending culture of organisations is a fundamental s本论文由英语论文网提供整理，提供论文代写，英语论文代写，代写论文，代写英语论文，代写留学生论文，代写英文论文，留学生论文代写相关核心关键词搜索。