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een; and in terms of ambiguity, it is a mixture of complexity, unpredictability and deception that cause the organisations ambiguous. To support these views, the work by Argyris (1993), which involves organisational defensive routines, can expand some insights into organisational settings. Argyris (1993) notes that government, educational and business organisations share similarities of defensive routines concerning actions or policy. The defensive policies and actions reside in individuals, groups, intergroups or organisations from facing embarrassing and threatening situations, and such routines of employees in organisational settings can, perhaps, result in anti-learning, over protectiveness and anti-productiveness of organisational potentials to learn and develop (Argyris, 1993). Drawing from the literatures, it is essential for leaders of any organisational agencies to have multiple perspectives, views, frames or lenses in order to guide themselves through their leaderships in organisations because organisations are so complex and ambiguous.

CONCEPTS OF ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE AND CHANGE  组织文化的概念和变化

Organisational Culture  组织文化

Culture has been connected with human beings for generations and individuals have applied it to guide themselves for their day-to-day living. McLeod (2003) states that where there is a group, there is a culture. In this sense, culture and people are tied together wherever they are. Culture has an abstract meaning and concept while its forces and emotions in societies and organisations are very powerful (Schein, 2010). Cultural forces can assist people to overcome their confusion, anxiety and uncertainty, thus understanding them will help point out their frustrating and mysterious experiences in social and organisational life (Schein, 2010). To support this, Yukl (2002) confirms that a key function of culture is to help individuals understand the environment and identify how to respond to it, and therefore reducing uncertainty, anxiety and confusion.

Culture is described as basic assumptions and beliefs that are shared by individuals or groups within organisation, and such aspects are often unspoken and unconsciously operated (Cunliffe, 2008; Stoll & Fink, 2001). It is the taken for granted assumptions, ideas, beliefs and meanings that members of the group or organisation hold as they continue organised activity (Alvesson, 2002; Schein, 2010). In some concepts, culture is referred to norms, values, forms of behaviour, traditions and rituals. However, in the concept of sharing, it has more critical and multiple elements. Schein (2010) explains that this concept of culture has structural stability, depth, breath, and patterning or integration. These cultural aspects respectively embrace a level of structural stability in the group (identity of group); in terms of depth, it is often unconscious part of a group, which is less manifest and less tangible. Breath is concerned with influences over a group. This means that after it has developed, it covers functions of a group; and in terms of patterning or integration, it binds various characteristics of culture together and put them at a deeper level (Schein, 2010).

It is, perhaps, more concise and manifest if culture is seen through societal and organis本论文由英语论文网提供整理，提供论文代写，英语论文代写，代写论文，代写英语论文，代写留学生论文，代写英文论文，留学生论文代写相关核心关键词搜索。