英语论文网

experiences in which the success or failure occur. After strong efficacy expectations are developed through repeated success, the negative impact of occasional failures is likely to be reduced. Indeed, occasional failures that are later overcome by determined effort can strengthen self- motivated persistence if one finds through experiences that even the most difficult obstacles can be mastered by sustained effort (Bandura, 1977). For example, persons who once tried to quit gambling for a day failed probably will doubt their ability to quit for a day in the future. On the other hand, a person who is able to quit gambling for a full day may hold strong self-efficacy expectancies for refraining from gambling for another day.

Vicarious Experiences is just like observational learning, modeling, and imitation (Maddux, 1995). The observers persuade themselves if others can do it, they should be able to achieve at least some improvement in performance. Vicarious experiences relies on inference from social comparison. It has weaker effects on self-efficacy expectancy than do direct personal experiences (Bandura, 1977). Also, observing one perform activities that meet with success does produce greater behavioural improvements than witnessing the same performances modelled without any evident consequences (Kazdin, 1974). The effects of vicarious experiences depends on factors such as the observer＊s perception of the similarity between himself and the model, the number and variety of models, the perceived power of the models, the similarity between the problems faced by the observer and the model. The influence of the model＊s success and failure is stronger with higher similarity. (Bandura, 1986, 1994).

Verbal persuasion is widely used to influence human behavior because of its ease and ready availability. It includes the others＊ exhortations, encouragement or suggestions, etc. People are led, through suggestion, into believing they can cope successfully with what has overwhelmed them in the past (Bandura, 1977). The potency of verbal persuasion should be influences by such factors as the expertness, trustworthiness, and attractiveness of the source (Maddux, 1995). However, the self-efficacy induced by verbal persuasion is also likely to be weaker than those arising from the experiences because verbal persuasion does not provide a reliable experiential base. It is believed that the self-efficacy induced by the suggestion will be extinguished by the disconfirming experiences (Bandura, 1977).

Psychological arousal (e.g. stress, fear, etc) may be another factor that affects people in judging their capabilities. Stressful and taxing situations generally induce emotional arousal that can affect perceived self-efficacy in coping with threatening situations (Bandura, 1977). Also, Maddux (1995) suggested that both anxiety and depression may have a deleterious impact on self-efficacy. On the contrary, it is believed that positive mood or emotionally clam may enhance the self-efficacy and is more likely to expect success.

Imaginal experiences is another factor that will affect the self-efficacy level. People can generate beliefs about personal efficacy or inefficacy by imagining themselves or others behaving effectively or ineffectively in future situations, their possible behavioural and emotional reactions to those situations, and the possible consequent results (Maddux, 1995). Images may be der