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) described washback in a research on testing listeningcomprehension in Japan. He said, “There is a natural tendency for both teachers andstudents to tailor their classroom activities to the demands of the test, especially when thetest is very important to the future of the students, and pass rates are used as a measure ofteacher success.” Based on his study, the impact of test on what teachers and students do inclass is washback.Hughes (1989:89) defines that “the effect of testing on teaching and learning isbackwash (this term being synonymous with washback)”. He also states that washback canbe beneficial or harmful.Alderson & Wall (1993:117): considers washback to be what teachers and learners dothat “they would not necessarily otherwise do” because of the test.Messick (1996:254) makes the more specific point that washback is “not simply goodor bad teaching or learning practice that might occur with or without the test, but rathergood or bad practice that is evidentially linked to the introduction and use of the test”.Bachman and Palmer (1996) concluded that “the notion of washback in languagetesting can be characterized in terms of impact.” They defined test impact at two levels: amicro level and a macro level: “ the impact of test use operates at two levels, a micro level,in terms of the individuals who are affected by the particular test use, and a macro level, interms of the educational system or society. ”
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2.2 Theoretical frameworks
For decades, scholars have debated the potential impact of tests. Some of theoreticalhypotheses and models have been put forward to illustrate mechanisms of washback.The title of an article written by Alderson & Wall (1993) posed the following question:“Does Washback Exist?” In the article, it was noted that many assertions had been maderelating to the influence of tests, there was very little in the way of empirical evidence toback up the claims that tests affected teaching and learning, in either a negative or positiveway. In order to examine in greater depth the relationship between washback and‘influence’, in an attempt to clarify the idea of washback and to serve as the basis forfurther study, Alderson and Wall (1993: 120-1) proposed the Washback Hypotheses listedbelow from the most general and vague to the somewhat more refined, highlighting morespecifically some of the ways in which a test might affect teaching and learning.
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Chapter Three Methodology ....... 16
3.1 Research questions.........16
3.2 Participants..... 16
3.3 Instruments......... 16
3.3.1 Questionnaires ....... 17
3.3.2 Classroom observation ......18
3.3.3 Interviews ....... 19
Chapter Four Results and discussions.......... 20
4.1 Analysis of questionnaire results ........ 20
4.2 Classroom observation outcomes ......37
4.2.1 Listening materials mainly used.......38
4.2.2 Listening types mainly focused on........39
4.2.3 Listening activities mainly organized....... 39
4.3 Analysis of interview ........ 40
4.3.1 Analysis of the interviews with teachers ....... 41
4.3.2 Analysis of the interviews with students ...... 41
Chapter Five Conclusion .......43
5.1 Major Findings.......43
5.2 Pedagogical implications ........ 44
5.3 Limitations of the research and suggestions for future study ..... 45

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