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ed or semi-fixed.Different researchers used various terms accounting for the same phenomenon fromdifferent perspectives including chunk, prefabricated chunk, speech formulate,lexicalized stems, formulaic language, frozen and semi-frozen phrases, and multiwordunits.Lewis (1993) proposed the term lexical chunk as expressions using to manageaspects of the interaction; they are pragmatic in character. It was based on the ideathat an important part of language acquisition was the ability to comprehend andproduce lexical phrases as unanalyzed wholes, or ‘chunks’, and that these chunksbecome the raw data by which learners perceive patterns of language traditionallythought of as grammar. But he was also concerned with ‘poly-words’ includingcompounds, phrasal verbs and short phrases and collocations. He emphasized thatlanguage consists of grammaticalised lexis, not lexicalized grammar.Moon (1997: 43) described lexical phrase as a general term multi-word item. Itwas a vocabulary item which consisted of a sequence of two or more words whichsemantically or syntactically formed a meaningful and inseparable unit. He alsoinsisted that multi-word items were the result of lexical processes of fossilization andword-formation, rather than the results of the operation of grammatical rules.Nattinger & De Carrico (2000) defined lexical phrases as multi-word lexicalphenomena that existed somewhere between the traditional poles of lexicon andsyntax, conventionalized form/function composites that occured more frequently and had more idiomatically, determined meaning than language that was put together eachtime. These phrases included short, relatively fixed phrases, such as a ___ago, orlonger phrases or clauses such as if I X, then I, the ___er X, the ___ er Y, each with afixed, basic frame, with slot for various fillers (a year ago ,a month ago, the higher X,the higher Y, the longer you wait, the sleepier you get). Each was associated with aparticular discourse function, such as expressing time, a month ago, or relationshipsamong ideas, the higher X, the higher Y.
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2.2 On Listening Comprehension
Clark (1977) proposed a narrow and a broad definition: What is comprehension?In its narrowest definition, it is the process by which listeners come to aninterpretation for a stream of speech; in its broader, it also includes the process bywhich listeners use those interpretations for their intended purpose.As defined by O’Malley & Chamot (1990:434), “Listening comprehension is aconscious and active learning process which involves comprehension of meaning byusing cues from internal and external information, existing knowledge of the listenersand the intrinsic and extrinsic elements in the reality.” Because listening is really ahard skill to master, they also pointed out that listeners can use some multiplestrategic resources to improve their listening comprehension.Vandergrift (1997: 494-505) claimed, “Listening comprehension is anything buta passive activity. It is a complex active process in which the listener mustdiscriminate between sounds, vocabulary and grammatical structures, interpret stressand intonation, retain what was gathered in all of the above, and interpret it within theimmediate as well as the larger sociocultural context of the utterance.”Amy and John (1998) explained that listening comprehension was a multileveland interactive process where listeners worked on various levels of cognitiveprocesses to unders