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has allowed less qualified students to obtain places after paying an admission fee.

However, the impact of this has been a high number of repeating students (Egypt, n.d.a, 2007). The high enrolment rates coupled with decreased public expenditure pose challenges, as the enrolments are not financially sustainable. In addition to compressing resources, the size of the Egyptian higher education system poses special challenges to the provision of quality education.

1.6.5 Governance and management of the higher education system

The governance and management system faces complex and outdated legislation and institutional organization, inefficient resource allocation mechanisms and funding patterns, absence of quality assurance mechanisms and inadequate strategic planning and management, at both the system wide and the institutional level (Said, 2001).

The available information highlights that all need a stronger planning and coordinating link. The MOHE has a minor role in this budgeting process. Furthermore, there are no effective policy-making advisory bodies to inform the government on resource allocation, or to co-ordinate with institutions to assist the decision-makers in planning system development. The Supreme Council of Universities (SCU) and the MOHE have no technical secretariat to carry out policy analysis or advisory functions, to guide system development, or to periodically monitor programme quality and performance of graduates (Said, 2001).

At the institutional level, financial resources are limited primarily to government funds, student enrolment fees, funds from centers of excellence that offer community services, research or consultation work, and funds from joint research activities. Institutions have limited authority over internal reallocation of resources, student intake, faculty hiring or firing, or academic offerings. Inadequate budgeting practices provide few incentives for efficiency or quality improvements, and the governance structures do not motivate senior managers to make the best use of resources (Said, 2001).

Said (2001) points out that despite several attempts by institutions to develop strategic plans, none has been implemented effectively due to limited funding, management culture and strategic planning. In addition, neither the universities nor higher education governing bodies like the MOHE and SCU have developed a modern Management Information System (MIS) to assist with strategic planning and resource allocation. Although they gather many statistics, they make little use of them. It was reported that most statistics are collected and transformed manually, with the exception of limited individual initiatives to computerize and automate the process.

1.6.6 Quality assurance

Said (2001) highlights that there are no quality assurance mechanisms in place to evaluate teaching (formative or summative). There are insufficient criteria for assessing performance, particularly teaching. Chairs and deans are not empowered to take any meaningful action following on evidence of poor performance by their staff. Except for some individual and isolated initiatives, there is also limited expertise for developing strong standards for performance, and no generally available data that could readily be used as indicators of educational quality. Most academic departments exhibit a lack of focus 本论文由英语论文网提供整理，提供论文代写，英语论文代写，代写论文，代写英语论文，代写留学生论文，代写英文论文，留学生论文代写相关核心关键词搜索。