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e intermediary abolition laws illustrate the mixed nature of the results. Daniel Thorner stresses the deprivation of land rights suffered by inferior tenants.16 Gunnar Myrdal's assessment, in contrast, emphasizes the end of the reign of powerful intermediaries as semi-feudal chiefs, while acknowledging that inferior tenants drew essentially no benefits from the reform.17 Finally, Wolf Ladejinsky observes:
Despite opposition and administrative and technical problems, the zamindari tenures were virtually abolished. Not all have been benefited equally and not all 20 million cultivators affected have received permanent, heritable, and transferable rights. Nevertheless the effort was a great step forward for reconstruction of Indian agriculture.18

Lessons from Abolition of Intermediaries
The legislation abolishing intermediaries is largely of historical significance and has limited relevance for current land policy reform dialogue. These reforms were introduced decades ago and whatever implementation that is to happen has largely happened. Devoting policy attention to these laws would be wasted effort; such policy attention is much more warranted on other topics such as tenancy reform. However, the design and implementation experience of these laws does provide a few general lessons that may be applicable in revising other types of land legislation:
a€￠ Provide adequate compensation to existing holders of land rights when extinguishing their rights. One important reason why abolition of intermediary laws were more fully implemented than land ceiling laws (See Section III, below) is that the former provided more compensation than the latter, which decreased resistance from those whose land rights were to be taken.

a€￠ Simplify land tenure types and land legislation generally. When land legislation is exceedingly complex and when land tenures recognized by laws are numerous, poor (and especially illiterate) people suffer. Such complexity can and often is exploited by those who can afford lawyers and by government officials charged with implementing laws that ordinary citizens cannot possibly understand. Intermediary abolition laws took simplification steps in the right direction, but some states continue to retain too many legally recognized tenure types. Most states could benefit from efforts to simplify and clarify land legislation.19

a€￠ Land law and policy reform can lead to beneficial social change that is at least as important as the direct economic benefits. Intermediary abolition legislation is a case in point. In considering land policy reform alternatives and their likely impacts, policy makers should consider the social and political impacts as well as the potential economic impacts.

III. TENANCY REFORM
The abolition of most intermediary tenures brought the whole of India under a uniform tenurial system (albeit with some local variation) within the first decade after Independence.20 The efforts to abolish intermediary interests did not, however, extinguish tenancy. Provisions in the abolition of intermediary laws intending to secure the right of tenants of ex-intermediaries were largely ineffective and, in some cases, counter-effective. Renting out of land was widespread in ryotwari and mahalwari areas even where no intermediaries existed. In zamindari areas, even the lowest level of legally recognized land right holders r本论文由英语论文网提供整理，提供论文代写，英语论文代写，代写论文，代写英语论文，代写留学生论文，代写英文论文，留学生论文代写相关核心关键词搜索。