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a two-thirds of respondents would lie to the police to protect their friend.
Time and again in the workshops, the universalists response is that as the seriousness of the accident increases, the obligation to help their friend decreases. They seem to be saying to themselves the law was broken and the serious condition of the pedestrian underlines the importance of upholding the law. This suggests that universalism is rarely used to the exclusion of particularism, rather that it forms the first principle in the process of moral reasoning. Particular consequences remind us of the need for universal laws.
Particularist cultures, however, are rather more likely to support their friend as the pedestrians injuries increase. They seem to reason my friend needs my help more than ever now that he is in serious trouble with the law. Universalists would regard such an attitude as corrupt. What if we all started to lie on behalf of those close to us? Society would fall apart.
There is indeed something in this argument. But particularism, which is based on a logic of the heart and human friendship, may also be the chief reason that citizens would not break laws in the first place. Do you love your children or present them with a copy of the civil code? And what if the law becomes a weapon in the hands of a corrupt elite? You can choose what you call corruption.
As Figure 1 shows, universalists are more common in Protestant cultures, where the congregation relates to God by obedience to His written laws. There are no human intermediaries between God and His adherents, no one with the discretion to hear particular confessions, forgive sins or make special allowances. Predominantly Catholic cultures retain those features of religion which are more relational and particularist. People can break commandments and still find compassion for their unique circumstances. Moreover, for Catholics, God is like them; He will probably understand that you were lying for your friend, particularly one who had the bad luck of the stupid pedestrian crossing in front of his or her car.
Countries with strongly universalist cultures try to use the courts to mediate conflicts. An American book on automobile insurance is called Hit Me I Need the Money. Indeed America, credited with being the most litigious society on earth, has considerably more lawyers per head of population than the relatively particularist Japan. The more universalist the country, the greater the need for an institution to protect the truth.
Universalism versus particularism in international business
When companies go global there is an almost inevitable move towards universalist ways of thinking. After all, products and services are being offered to a wider and wider universe of people. Their willingness to buy is proof of a universal appeal. It follows that the ways of producing the product, managing those who make it and distributing it to customers should also be universalised. Consider the following examples of some of the areas where the universalist versus particularist dilemma shows up:
• The contract
• Timing a business trip
• The role of head office
The contract
Weighty contracts are a way of life in universalist cultures. A contract serves to record an agreement on principle and codifies what the respective parties have promised to do. It also implies consent to the agreement and provides recourse if the parties do not keep