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on”).
38. See Matsumoto, Unmasking Japan; for application to Japanese romantic narratives as they contrast with Western Harlequin romances, see Janet S. Shibamoto Smith, “Translating True Love: Japanese Romance Fiction, Harlequin-Style,” in Gender, Sex, and Translation:The Manipulation of Identities, ed. José Santaemilia (Manchester, UK: St. Jerome, 2005),
97 – 116.
39. Janet S. Shibamoto Smith, “Koishi, Aisuru: Competing Images of Japanese Men in Love” (paper presented at the American Anthropological Association Ninety-Sixth Annual Meeting, Chicago, November 19 – 23, 1997).
40. Hanai Aiko, Futari jikan (Time for the Two of Us) (Tokyo: Shueisha Bunko, 1989).
41. See Kittredge Cherry, Womansword: What Japanese Words Say about Women (New York: Kodansha International, 1987), 52 – 54, for a discussion of tekireiki (the right age [for marriage]).
42. John Clammer, Contemporary Urban Japan: A Sociology of Consumption (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1997); Rosenberger, Gambling with Virtue; Lise Skov and Brian Moeran, eds., Women, Media and Consumption in Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1995).
43. It is beyond the scope of this essay to address the problematics of being “masculine” in the post – World War II period, when many models of masculinity, especially those drawn from the military, were discredited.
44. See Shibamoto Smith, “From Hiren to Happî-Endo.”
45. Yuikawa Kei, Kisu yori setsunaku (Sadder Than a Kiss) (1991; Tokyo: Shueisha Bunko,1997).
46. Shibamoto Smith, “Translating True Love,” 114.
47. Kamata Toshio, Koishite mo ([May I] Love You?) (1990; Tokyo: Kadokawa Bunko, 1992).
48. That is, these fierce emotions are not usually found in happily ending romances prior to the 1990s.
49. See Mulhern, “Japanese Harlequin Romances.”
50. Hoshino Yumi, Aozora no rabirinsu (Blue Sky Labyrinth) (Tokyo: Oto Shobo, 1998).
51. See Mulhern, “Japanese Harlequin Romances,” for a nice description of how it is more often the hero than the heroine in a Japanese romance who does the maturing and how a happy ending tends to come when a hero apologizes to the heroine for his failings.
52. In is important to note that the 1990s saw a much more complicated picture in ren’ai (love) genre novels. Novels appeared about potential couples with personal flaws that they were unable to overcome; they tend to conclude, as do the hiren romances, with couples separating; but the causes were not the tragic circumstances of a too-close genealogical relationship or an indissoluble marriage, or — best — the death of one or the other of the principles. Rather, the causes tended to reside in the motives or the commitments of the principles themselves. These novels were also joined by an increasing number of supposed ren’ai stories by or about the very young. Both these types of romance fall outside the scope of my study.
53. Setouchi Jakucho, Kawaku (Thirst) (1993; Tokyo: Kodansha Bunko, 1996).
54. Camphor is a stimulant.
55. See Gordon Mathews, What Makes Life Worth Living? How Japanese and Americans Make Sense of Their Worlds (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996).
56. Possibly because women who were sengyoo shufu (professional housewives) had more time to engage in it than did their “corporate warrior” husbands.
57. The earlier normative expectation was that they would live with one of their children in old ag