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In this section,the definition of PBL is described and the characteristics andprocess of PBL are illustrated.In addition,previous empirical studies on PBL arereviewed.

2.1.1 Definition of PBL

There are two common models at home and abroad:problem-based learning andproject-based learning.Influenced by Dewey's empirical philosophy and the idea of'learning by doing',Kilpatrick formally proposed'project learning'in 1918(Liu,2022).This method was also known as'design teaching method'whose core ideawas that teachers created a problem situation and guided students to plan and solveproblems independently.Howard Barrows(1996),an American scholar who wascredited with being the first to name the term'problem-based learning'meaning thatstudents discovered and solved problems by themselves under the guidance of theteacher.Both methods emphasize the connection between learning and experience andthe active construction of knowledge.The difference between the two methods is theduration of the activity.For example,problem-based learning is relatively short,which can be limited to single-digit hours,while students have to spend a longer timeto complete project-based learning,from a month to a semester depending on thecontext(Liu,2022).

2.2 Previous Studies on Critical thinking

This section elaborates on the representative definitions and dimensions ofcritical thinking given by previous experts.Then,an overview of empirical researcheson critical thinking is presented.

2.2.1 Definition of critical thinking

The proposal of critical thinking can be traced back to the times of ancient Greekphilosophers such as Socrates,Plato and Aristotle.Socrates''socratic method'brought to light the importance of obtaining evidence,testing hypotheses andreasoning as well as analyzing concepts,which were the basic strategies of criticalthinking(Guo,2014).However,Socrates did not give a definition of critical thinking.

In the bud period of critical thinking,John Dewey,the pioneer of criticalthinking,systematically discussed the issue of critical thinking in his book How WeThink and advocated'reflective thinking'(Dewey,2022:18).In 1962,Robert Ennis,one of the pioneers of critical thinking in the United States,criticized Dewey's'reflective thinking'and emphasized the central role of inductive inference in criticalthinking which was then defined by Robert Ennis as the correct evaluation ofpropositions(Ennis,1989).Since then,the concept of critical thinking has beenstudied by experts in different fields in the following decades,and two well-knownpeople who made the definition of critical thinking are John McPeck and RichardPaul.

Chapter Three Theoretical Framework .............................. 29

3.1 Constructivism Theory .................................. 29

3.1.1 Constructivism .............................. 29

3.1.2 Relationship between Constructivism and PBL ........................ 30

Chapter Four Methodology ............................. 33

4.1 Research Questions .................................... 33

4.2 Research Variables .................................. 33

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