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1. Introduction
A wide range of relevant literature is briefly reviewed here including historical developments, lessons learned from historical experience, comparison of theory, predictions of various models, and unresolved technical issues.
1 引言

一个广泛的相关文献做了简要回顾，这里包括历史发展，从历史的经验教训，比较理论，对各种模型的预测，以及尚未解决的技术问题。

2. Lessons from LNG shipping experience
LNG is a relatively young technology dating to 1915 by river barge and the first crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in 1959. The two major classes of LNG carriers, the Moss Sphere and Membrane carriers, are illustrated in Fig. 1. Recent designs to larger capacity favor membrane carriers. The dimensions of these modern carriers are truly astounding, as illustrated in Fig. 2 . Fig. 2 shows one of typically five tank compartments in a membrane tanker. The volume of such a tank ranges typically from 35,000 to 39,000 m³. The quantities carried are largely responsible for the concern paid to LNG risk assessments. The largest current vessels are the Q-Max designs developed to export Qatar gas reserves, and these have over 260,000m³LNG capacity. Lindemark , Kamsvåg, and Valsgård (20 0 4, 20 0 6) discuss how numerical models are applied to calculate torsional and warping responses to establish loads, ultimate load strength, and fatigue limits to design LNG carriers.

2 从液化天然气运输的经验教训

LNG是一个相对年轻的技术可以追溯到1915的河流驳船和1959大西洋海洋第一个十字路口。LNG船的两大类，苔藓球和膜为载体，在图1所示。最近的设计更大的能力有利于膜载体。这些现代载体尺寸真是惊人的，如图2所示。图2显示了一个典型的五箱在膜的油轮。这样一个罐容积范围通常从35000到39000立方米。的数量进行主要负责支付LNG风险评估的关注。目前最大的船只Q-Max型设计开发出口卡塔尔天然气储备，这些都在260000m3液化天然气的能力。lindemark，kamsvåG，和valsgå路（20 0 4 20，0 6）讨论了如何数值模型被应用于计算翘曲和扭转反应，建立载荷，极限强度和疲劳极限的设计，液化天然气运输船。

The history of LNG includes learning by experience of sloshing damage, illustrated in Fig. 3 . Consequently, cargos in membrane carriers must be discharged nearly completely (with minimal heel for cooling) at a single destination port.

2.1. LNG accident history highlights robust tankers
Our book (Woodward & Pitblado, 2010) includes a brief discussion of LNG trade history and projections for the future, and a reasonably complete summary of the accident history of LNG shipping. Accident history compiled by Delano (2003), Bainbridge (2003), and LNG World Shipping (2006) reveals that while there have been no loss of cargo from LNG tanker accidents, four grounding events occurred during the 51 years that LNG sea-going vessels have operated. Even grounding of loaded ships resulted in no loss of cargo as exemplifi ed by the grounding of the El Paso Paul Kayser. On June 29, 1979 the ship carrying 95,000m³of cargo ran aground near Gibraltar at 17 knots ( Vaudolon, 20 0 0) or 14 knots (CHIV, 20 03). Fig. 4 illustrates that the external hull damage was extensive, but the internal cargo tank damage was minimal with slight buckling of the inner membrane liner. There was no loss of containment even though damage occurred in a vulnerable location on the ship. Failure rate frequencies for various events such as tanker colli-sions and grounding are included in the book (ibid). For onshore
facilities,Table 1 provides LNG leaks frequency from storage tanks (Kim, Koh, Kim, & Theofanous, 20 05). These values are seen to be small.

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