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小议促进学生英语单句和语篇理解能力的手段——蕴涵与预设          
蕴涵是一个逻辑学和语义学上关于两个句子语义关系的重要概念。蕴涵的定义为:“如果S真, S1为真; S假, S1 或真或假; S1真, S或真或假; S1假时, S必假。”[2]如S: He teachesEnglish in a primary schoo;l S1: He is a teacher. S真则S1必真。蕴涵属于种属关系,或部分和整体关系。所有的蕴涵具有不可取消的特性,否则造成语义矛盾。蕴涵从整个结构句子得出,句子间存在上义、下义、同义、反义关系。蕴涵与语境有关.“语境分为语言语境和非语言语境”[3]。
语言语境是指语篇的上下文,包含语音、句法、段落知识。而非语言语境指语篇的文化背景知识。了解语境对正确分析蕴涵意义有指导意义。(1)S: Computers are gaining in popularity, despite their cost.S1. Computers are getting cheaper.S2. Computers are expensive.S3. Computers used to bemore popular than they are now.
解析:在测试材料和提供的选择答案中, S让步句主句表明电脑流行起来,此句与价格有关,语气暗含电脑价格不菲,蕴涵了S2.所以S2为TRUE. S真推导不出S1真或假,S1为NOTGIVEN. S3明显是对S的否定,故S3为FALSE.
(2)S. As a result of increasing affluence, an ever larger number of families now have two cars.S1. Most families nowadays have two cars.S2. People are getting richer.S3. Cars are becomingmore expensive.解析: S事实并未蕴涵S1, S1的事实可真可假,所以S1为NOTGIVEN. S2是更多家庭拥有两部汽车的一个前提, S要真, S2必须为真,所以S2为TRUE.至于S3、S拥有两辆车不蕴涵车的价格因素,故可能真的或可能也是假的,为NOTGIVEN.(3)S. Educational standards in schools have, in general been gradually improving.S1. Schools have been getting better.S2. The education in schools has notbeen improving.S3. Educational standards are not as unsatisfactory as they used to be.
解析: S所提到的教育标准提高了,教育标准也包括学校的环境、教师等多方面,故S1学校变好了也蕴涵于S中,S1为真,即TRUE.而S2是S句的对立面,即为FALSE。再看S3,语义中包括双重否定,即为肯定,也为:教育标准和过去一样令人满意。但S句提及,教育标准在提高但也许还未达到令人满意的效果,过去或现在的标准都可能未达到满意标准,故为NOTGIVEN.(4)S: In families, the traditional roles ofmen and women are often reversed if theman becomes unemployed.S1:A. Unemployment can affect theway that families operate.S2:B. In families where the woman has a job, men and women usually have traditional roles.S3:C. Unemployment does not affect the role of a man in the family.
解析: S———男性和女性的角色反转(部分)是家庭运作变化(整体)之一, S真是S1真的充分条件, S1为TRUE. S2提到的传统角色在S中并未具体说明,且S2的真假不以S的真为依据,故S2为NOT GIVEN. S失业使男性女性角色发生转变,也即男性的角色受到了影响,故S3是对S的暗示蕴涵直接否定, S3为假,即FALSE。　　

语用学中的预设是从哲学中的预设概念援用而来的。正确运用预设理论对正确了解句子及会话含义起着重要作用。预设的定义是,“假如S真, S1为真; S假, S1仍为真, S1真, S或真或假; S1假, S无真假值”[4]。在S和S1两句关系中, S的真值是S1真值的充沛前提, S1的真值是S真值的必要前提。预设往前揣测曾经存在或发作的背景学问,范围变小;可在特定语境里取消,属于矛盾、反对关系/断言之外意义;可从构造中的某个成分得出,主要指名词成分。也即假如B事情的存在以A事情为先设条件,则A是B的预设。预设的主要特征为假如否认S, S1仍真。如S: John’s pet is lovely.假如否认S: John’s pet is not lovely.则S1: John has a pet.仍为真。“蕴涵与预设的区别在于, S和S1中, S假如是假或S1是假的状况,详细表现为:在预设中, S1是S的前提,即S的真取决于S1的真值;但是假如S1为假,则S或真或假,没有真假可言。”[5]
(6)S:Although the hazards ofboxing have been well publicized, the government hasn’t yet introduced a total ban on the sport.S1:A. The governmentdoes notwant to ban boxing.S2:B. The hazards ofboxing are not verywell-known.S3:C. The hazards ofboxingwere informed.解析: S表明事实上政府没有采取措施禁止拳击,但原因是多方面的,也许是政府不打算这么做,也许是想禁止,但其他原因导致政府还没有禁止拳击。故S1可真可假,为NOTGIVEN; S2是S中存在事实的对立面,Well publicized与notwell-known想矛盾,则S2为假,FALSE. S3是S的预设,只不过,这个条件的存在并没有推出直接的结果(拳击被禁止),故S3为真值,为TRUE。(7) S:There is asmuchmoney to bemade from the sale of umbrellas on rainy days, as there is from cold drinkswhen the temperature rises. S1:A. Cold drinks and umbrellas are sold.S2:B. When it rains, older people buy umbrellas. S3:C. The author is a shopkeeper.解析: S1的真值是S句真,即卖雨伞和卖冷饮能进行比较的前提条件, S1为真,判断为TRUE. S2中老人购买雨伞不是S真的必要条件或充分条件, S2可真可假,为NOTGIV-EN. S句存在的事实为真,不以S3的存在为前提, S3可真可假,为NOTGIVEN.(8)S: While it is acknowledged formany years that an in-creasing number of animals are bound to become extinct, it is only recently that the problem has been addressed by politicians. S1:A. Recently people have b本论文由英语论文网提供整理，提供论文代写，英语论文代写，代写论文，代写英语论文，代写留学生论文，代写英文论文，留学生论文代写相关核心关键词搜索。