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t be considered is whether references to paradigms in relation to the social sciences, which are often linked to Kuhn’s name, are misattributions of a concept of a paradigm, or simply misattributions of Kuhn’s name? In other words, is there perhaps another concept of a paradigm, one which has only a verbal link with Kuhn, lurking in some of the social sciences? If so, how might it (or they) be articulated?

2. ‘Normal Science’

For the most part and for most of their working lives, scientists operate within what Kuhn call’s ‘normal science’. A period of normal science may last for generations. Within this period scientists address puzzles. Within this period scientific advancement is regarded as proceeding by accumulation. Past results are built upon, added to, and utilised to solve puzzles. Much of the work involves replication of previous results, possibly in marginally different circumstances. Quite a deal of effort is designed to confirming predictions that have long been made according to some theory within the science, and which are uncontroversial. The vast majority of the ‘discoveries’ are unsurprising.

These scientists will be applying theories and laws that have been known for some time in general terms, and possibly working on the formulation of sub-theories or sub-laws that refine the generalities in terms of particular ‘local’ applications (for example the development of a theory dealing specifically with tidal movement, subordinate to a general theory of gravitational attraction).

Groups of accumulated ‘discoveries’ that are of general application, as well as the general theories and laws to which they are subordinate, are listed in text books for the discipline. These text books, including the advanced text books, as well as the practical instruction in laboratory settings, are all processes of the induction of new researchers. To what are they being inducted? Kuhn’s answer is, in his special sense, a paradigm. Paradigms in this sense have two features. They involve a series of linked theories, laws, and discoveries that are (i) sufficiently striking and enduring to attract scientists away from other paradigms (other integrated sets of theories, laws, and discoveries dealing with what is essentially the same broad subject area), and (ii) sufficiently open-ended in their scope and application that there is plenty of work for new researchers to do in confirming predictions, solving residual puzzles, and accumulating more results.

An example of a paradigm is the Ptolemaic theory of astronomy. This comprises all of the elaborations and applications of a theory of the structure of the universe that dates back to Ptolemy of Alexandria (2nd century AD) – also known by his Roman name of Claudius Ptolemaeus – who was an Egyptian mathematician, astronomer, and geographer, noted for his comprehensive mathematical elaboration of the geocentric theory of the universe; the theory that the Earth is at the very centre of the universe, around which the heavenly bodies, including the sun, revolve in circular orbits. This is quite comprehensive in its scope and includes a number of subordinate theories and laws, as well as plenty of scope for future mathematicians and astronomers to make predictions about future observations (of relevance not only to scientists but also, in those times especially, to astrologers). It meets Kuhn’s standards for being a paradigm in that it is both striking and enduri本论文由英语论文网提供整理，提供论文代写，英语论文代写，代写论文，代写英语论文，代写留学生论文，代写英文论文，留学生论文代写相关核心关键词搜索。