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s and specific limitations that act as obstacles to trade,” that may be embedded in laws, regulations, practices, and requirements other than tariffs. These include non-tariff charges, government participation in trade, restrictive trade practices, and policies; customs and administrative procedures, and practices; technical barriers to trade (TBT); sanitary and phyto-sanitary measures (SPS); distribution constraints, and other specific measures.

 

Baldwin (1970) in his seminal work defines “non-tariff distortion as any measure (public or private) that causes internationally traded goods and services, or resources devoted to the production of these goods and services, to be allocated in such a way as to reduce potential real world income”. Hillman defined NTBs as 'any governmental device or practice other than a tariff which directly impedes the entry of imports into a country and which discriminates against imports, but does not apply with equal force on domestic production or distribution.' Mahe's defined an NTB as a restriction other than a tariff that leads to a decrease in world welfare. There is no official definition but, in general terms, it refers to any measure other than a tariff which protects domestic industry. Many non-tariff measures are based on a legitimate goal (such as the protection of human health) and can be introduced in a WTO consistent manner.

 

Examples of non-tariff barriers/measures to trade include import bans, general or product-specific quotas, rules of origin, quality conditions imposed by the importing country on the exporting countries, Sanitary and phytosanitary conditions, Packaging conditions, Labelling conditions, Product standards, , Complex regulatory environment, Determination of eligibility of an exporting country by the importing country, Determination of eligibility of an exporting establishment (firm, company) by the importing country, Additional trade documents like Certificate of Origin, Certificate of Authenticity etc., , Occupational safety and health regulation, Employment law, Import licenses, , State subsidies, procurement, trading, state ownership, Export subsidies, , Fixation of a minimum import price, Product classification, Quota shares, Foreign exchange market controls and multiplicity, Inadequate infrastructure, “Buy national” policy, Over-valued currency, Intellectual property laws (patents, copyrights), Restrictive licenses, Seasonal import regimes, corrupt and/or lengthy customs procedures.

 

According to Laird and Vossenaar (1991), NTMs may be broadly classified according to the intent or immediate impact of the measures. They identify five such categories:

 

Measures to control to volume of imports

 

These include prohibitions and quantitative restrictions on imports as well as export restraint agreements. Licences are often used to administer quantitative restrictions. Export restraint agreements consist of voluntary export restraints (covering, inter alia, measur本论文由英语论文网提供整理，提供论文代写，英语论文代写，代写论文，代写英语论文，代写留学生论文，代写英文论文，留学生论文代写相关核心关键词搜索。