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es employed for the administration of bilateral agreements under the Multi-Fibre Arrangement (MFA) and, now, the WTO Agreement on Textiles and Clothing) and Orderly Marketing Agreements (OMAs).

 

Measures to control the price of imported goods

 

These include the use of reference or trigger price mechanisms, variable levies, anti-dumping duties and countervailing measures. Tariff-type measures such as tariff quotas and seasonal tariffs also are usually intended to increase import prices under given circumstances. Voluntary export price restraints fall under this broad category of intent.

 

Monitoring measures, for example price and volume investigations and surveillance.

 

Such practices are often associated with charges by domestic interests of unfair trading practices by exporters, e.g. dumping and subsidisation. Licences are sometimes used as a monitoring instrument. Monitoring measures my be a prelude to other actions, and, if seen as such, may lead to export restraints. They may have a harassment effect.

 

Production and export measures

 

Subsidies may be directly applied to output or value added, or they may be indirectly applies, that is, paid to material or other inputs into the production process. They may arise from payments or the non-collection of taxes that would otherwise be due. Restrictions by mean of taxes or prohibitions may also be imposed on production or exports.

 

Technical barriers

 

Imposed at the frontier, these are used to apply various standards for health and safety reasons to imported products to ensure that imported products conform to the same standards, as those required by law for domestically produces goods. They may lead to the prohibition of non-complying imports or necessitate cost-increasing production improvements.

 

Examples of Non-Tariff Measures across the Globe

The office of the Unites States Trade Representatives (USTR) publishes the national Trade Estimate Report on global foreign trade barriers (FTB) every year. Most countries around the world, including the United Stated and Europe, have multiple non-tariff barriers according to the USTR report on FTB. Examples provided below are but a sampling of non-tariff barriers:

 

Angola—Angola is officially open to foreign investment, but its regulatory and legal infrastructure is inadequate to facilitate direct investment and provide sufficient protection

 

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