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ds brought about by the introduction of new technology and wider ranges of tasks. All of this required the provision of training. During the 1990s, initiatives such as TQM, ISO 9000, investors in people and benchmarking, and self-assessment using models such as among others, the BEM (British Excellence Models), further highlighted the need to train employees (DeToro and McCabe, 1997; Marchington and Wilkinson, 1997 - in Oakland and Oakland: 2002). Typically, training strategies in organisations require managers to:

• Play an active role in training delivery (cascade training) and support (including quality tools and techniques);
• Receive training and development based on personal development plans (PDPs). These plans can be very useful in closing the skill gaps in performance management;
• Fund training and improvement activities to allow autonomy at 'local' levels for short pay-back investments; and
• Co-ordinate discussions and peer assessment to develop tailored training plans for individuals.
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What is particularly noteworthy about the training activities is that they are almost identical to those processes and activities commonly found in the management literature on the theory of training.

2.3.5 Effective communication

Communication is in essence the lifeblood of any organisation striving for 'world-class' status. It should permeate any situation or system operating in the organisation and where people are involved. Oakland and Oakland (2002:779) stated that: 'It is an important facet of people management – be it communication of organisation goals, vision strategy, business policies or communication of facts, information and data.' (Collins and Porras, Larkin and Larkin, Purser and Cabana, Yinglin quoted in Oakland and Oakland, 2002).

In some organisations' business success, regular two-way communication, particularly face-to-face with employees, is identified as an important factor in establishing trust and the feeling of being valued. The two-way communication can also be regarded as a key management responsibility and may include:

• Ensuring that people are briefed on key issues in language free of jargon.
• Communicating honestly and as fully as possible on all issues that affect the people
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