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lready in dominant positions for power. They are able to use the capital they have accumulated to gain more, a tactic unavailable to those without such resources (Ihlen 2009). This is an important criticism; however, it needs to be considered alongside the selfish individualism also promoted by this theory. Bourdieu (1986) views relationships and social networks as characterised by conflict, where individuals are motivated to become involved with each other by personal gain. Such a focus leave people with little room to care or consider the needs and expectations of the people with whom they have relationships or to work as a team towards a larger goal would be impossible as singular beings.

Although Putman (1996, 2000) does not directly challenge this view, his thinking by its very nature throws this idea of selfish individualism into sharp relief. Putman (1996, 2000) shares Bourdieu's core belief that there is value in relationships and the social networks built by them. But, where Putman (1996, 2000) differs in his thinking is that rather than this value being for selfish gain, he believes it can not only improve the welfare of all individuals involved in the relationship but also the bystanders and even society at large (Luoma-aho 2009).

Rather than placing actors in conflict he emphasises 'belonging' and a 'sense of community' and 'working together'. In this view relationships and social networks foster trust, reciprocity, facilitate communication and amplify information, helping actors to work together more effectively to achieve mutually beneficial aims and shared objectives (Putman, Leonardi and Nanetti, 1993, Putman, Feldstein and Cohen, 2003). For Putman, Leonardi and Nanetti (1993) social capital is defined less by accumulated resources and more by the 'features of social organisation, such as trust, norms, and networks that can improve the efficiency of society by facilitating coordinated actions' (p.167).

Putman believes one of the key norms needed for such social capital to exist and be cultivated is generalised reciprocity. This occurs when people consider the idea of helping one another to be the unspoken norm, knowing that the others parties in the relationship also feel the same way. This makes any connection about mutual benefit rather than selfish gain. It is demonstrated by parties acknowledging, understanding and supporting each other's needs (Putman, 1996: Putman, Leonardi and Nanetti, 1993; Putman, Feldstein and Cohen, 2003, Heath 2001; Taylor 2010; Luoma-aho 2009). If a tendency to help others is a characteristic of a society it is more likely that its members will work more successfully towards mutually beneficial aims than it would not have been possible should members be solely concerned with they own welfare (Putman 2000).

Putman also argues that through the presence of features, such as reciprocity two different types of social capital can be created; bridging and bonding, both of which are needed for groups, organisations and societies to work effectively. Bonding social capital brings people that already know each other closer together. This needs to be created first as it generates the core links that a group needs to function, by bringing like minded together as a 'community' nurtured by reciprocity and solidarity (Putman 2000).

Bridging social capital on the other