英语论文网

-- growth of professional and entrepreneurial middle class

-- emphasise material and economic modernisation over cultural regeneration

-- challenge cultural elitism with more individualistic political theories

-- demand more influence in political affairs --> unsuccessful revolution of 1848

-- these political ideas are reflected in biological theory, inc. cell theory

-- Theodor Schwann (1810-1882) argues in 1840s that cells are the fundamental units of all life -- and cell formation depends on local processes analogous to crystallisation

-- Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902) argues in the 1850s that cells arise by division of pre-existing cells

-- i.e. the development of the cells determines the development of the organism, not vice versa

THE 英语论文网“ANIMAL PHYSICS” OF 1847

-- 1847 “manifesto” issued by three students of Müller

-- Emil du Bois Reymond (1818-1896)
-- Carl Ludwig (1816-1895)
-- Hermann Helmholtz (1821-1894)

-- formulating a mechanistic and materialist philosophy of physiology

-- organisms are merely machines, complex assemblages of parts

-- physiology aims to explain the workings of the parts, and hence of the animal machine

-- physiology to be modelled on the science of physics

-- i.e. turning the Müllerian philosophy of biology on its head

 THE SUCCESS OF MECHANISTIC PHYSIOLOGY

-- 1848 revolution suppressed, but government adopts the aims of economic and industrial modernisation

-- 1847 group of scientists play down the political connotations of their reductionist philosophy

-- instead argue that their scientific programme will have material and economic benefits

-- win government support, appointed to professorships in leading institutions, and build institutes for physiological research and teaching

-- promoting physiology as animal physics
-- inc. studying nerves and muscles as electrical and mechanical machines
-- digestion and respiration as chemical and energetic processes

-- physiological institutes as factories for scientific production

-- 代写英文论文hierarchical division of labour under a central director

-- experimental machinery for producing facts