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wind up playing mother, sex object, pet, or iron maiden.Token men get caught, too. Lone blacks in groups of white workers, sociologistEverett Hughes found, may play the comedian. Taylor and Fiske's students saw thesolo black as taking on special roles in the group, often highly stereotyped. Andmale nurses, according to Bernard Segal, get inveigled into doing the distastefulchores that the women didn't want to do, which were considered "men's work."Tokens face additional pressures because they must work doubly hard toprove themselves. "Women must work twice as hard as men to be thought half asgood," wrote suffragist Charlotte Whitton; "Luckily, this is not difficult." But it isdifficult, and takes its psychological toll in emotional stress. Tokens have a shakyidentity because of their precarious position; they can't behave in a totally naturalway because they are on display all the time.
Many of the supposed personality traits of minority people in white male organizations,then, simply reflect their token status. To avoid the glare of visibility,some tokens try to hide themselves and their achievements. To escape the feeling ofbeing outsiders, some tokens go overboard in adopting the attitudes of the insiders.To win trust and the comfort of being accepted, some play the stereotype that is expectedof them.Yet all these reactions—which are not necessarily conscious or intentional—are exactly those that prove to the majority that they were right all along. So tokensare kept to a numerical minimum, and another vicious spiral continues.

THE JOB MAKES THE WOMAN
What I am suggesting is that the job makes the man—and the woman. People bringmuch of themselves and their histories to their work, but I think we have overlookedthe tremendous impact of an organization's structure on what happens to them oncethey are there.If my approach is right, it suggests that change will not come from changingpersonalities or attitudes, and not from studying sex or race differences. Change willcome only from interrupting the self-perpetuating cycles of blocked opportunity,powerlessness, and tokenism.Take the case of Linda S., a woman who had been a secretary in a large corporationfor 16 years. Five years ago, she would have said that she never wanted to beanything but a secretary. She also would have told you that since she had recentlyhad children she was thinking of quitting. She said secretarial work was not a goodenough reason to leave the children.Then came an affirmative-action program, and Linda was offered a promotion.She wavered. It would mean leaving her good female friends for a lonely lifeamong male managers. Her friends thought she was abandoning them. She worriedwhether she could handle the job. But her boss talked her into it and promised tohelp, reassuring her that he would be her sponsor.So Linda was promoted, and now she handles a challenging management jobmost successfully. Seeing her friends is the least of her many reasons to come towork every day, and her ambitions have soared. She wants to go right to the top."I have 15 years left to work," she says. "And I want to move up six grades tocorporate vice president—at least."
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 
What would you do if you were a manager and you wanted your people to bemore task-oriented?In view of the Kanter findings, what advice would you give to anyone entering (oralready in) an employment situation in which they are a minority?Employees who are critical and resentful 本论文由英语论文网提供整理，提供论文代写，英语论文代写，代写论文，代写英语论文，代写留学生论文，代写英文论文，留学生论文代写相关核心关键词搜索。