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g can extend to encompass everyone of a particular minority or even gender. In the legal profession, where ‘Male lawyers in general and the Professional Body fiercely resisted the entry of women. Firstly it is a conservative profession who oppose change. Secondly men felt the professional standards would be compromised through image and identity of female lawyers’ (Wilson, 1999:79). Bullying forced out woman from law practices, and stopped them from entering the profession. As a result, woman only accounted for 30% of all lawyers in 2005 (Department of Professional Employees, 2006:2) and earned on average 20% less. This is a good example of institutionalised bullying which is becoming more common in professions especially those that have previously been gendered. This example could however also be linked to the fact that these firms were run by men who were comfortable with the status quo and worked in an industry and era where they never had to consider woman at work. Causing a defence mechanism in the form of bullying woman out of work.

However bullying can be institutional and part of the system due to the fact, ‘employers have extensive power to choose who they employ, a factor emphasized by deregulated labour markets’ (Hoel and Cooper, 2006:248).

Therefore an employer will be better off than the employee if an employee leaves as there is plenty of labour supply. This is especially important in the UK today, with the current economic crisis, labour is in abundant supply, and employers are not hiring as many new employees. Ironside and Seifert ‘reject the notion that workers have a real choice of whether to continue or quit their jobs, and many workers put up with bad conditions because the alternatives are often worse’ (Ironside and Seifert 2003: 384). For the workers the alternative is unemployment. Therefore employers feel they can get away with bullying as they have easy alternatives, this can lead to currently employed workers to suffer as they believe they have no choice. A report by The Union of Skilled and Professional People (1995) said, ‘in context of increasing unemployment, the pressures of those who remain in employment are growing at an alarming rate’ (MSF, 1995:1). This is backed up by Hoel and Cooper who found ‘pay, increased workloads and the intensification of work were obvious points of dispute’ (Hoel and Cooper, 2006:254).

Changed organisational structures, focusing around a human resource management team, often this is used when you’re a labour intensive organisation with a lot of low level employees, e.g. Supermarkets. However this has ‘led to greater pressures on line managers and supervisors to operate under the new principles of excellence and quality in an increasingly globalized and competitive marketplace.’ (Liefooghe & Davey, 2001:376) Pressure placed on lower level managers often gets passed onto subordinates as they struggle to deal with performance targets. There is evidence to suggest this pressure can turn into aggression and bullying as managers try and get workers to be more efficient and work harder, to reach the managers targets. This pressure is particularly high in organisations that compete in a high labour market, as there is always someone to take the managers position they feel have to perform to keep their jobs. Lee (2000) said ‘in a competitive economic climate, unproductive employees will be sacrificed in the 本论文由英语论文网提供整理，提供论文代写，英语论文代写，代写论文，代写英语论文，代写留学生论文，代写英文论文，留学生论文代写相关核心关键词搜索。