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ommunity-Based Organisation
CERF Central Emergency Response Fund
CIDA Canadian International Development Agency
DFID Department for International Development
FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation
IASC Inter-Agency Standing Committee
ILO International Labour Office
INGO International Non-Governmental Organisation
KIO Kachin Independence Organisation
LNGO Local Non-Governmental Organisation
MNPD Ministry of Nation Planning and Development
MoU Memorandum of Understanding
NC National Convention
PDC Peace and Development Council
SLORC State Law and Order Restoration Council
SPDC State Peace and Development Council
UN RC/HC United Nations Resident and Humanitarian Coordinator
UNCT United Nation’s Country Team
UNDOC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNHCR United Nations High Commission for Refugees
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
USDA Union Solidarity and Development Association
WHO World Health Organisation
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PREFACE
This report is not an evaluation of the international aid operation in Myanmar. Rather, it is an
attempt to put the operating environment there into a wider historical and geographical
perspective. In particular, it addresses the nature of power through the experiences of the
people who, in different ways, and on a daily basis, confront its realities. In order for them
not to fall victim to this power, all identities, organisations and locations have been withheld.
At the same time, however, my debts are many and extensive. I would like to take this
opportunity to thank warmly those many people that helped me by giving freely of their time,
support and generosity of spirit. Without this, I would not have been able to complete this
work.
The report was commissioned by the former UN HC/RC, Yangon, with the support of
UNOCHA, New York. It is, however, a completely independent enquiry and does not reflect
UN policy or position. Any errors or misconceptions are entirely my own.
Mark Duffield
Sedgley
United Kingdom
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1. Introduction
Myanmar has been associated with war and ethnic conflict for over half a century. This war
is now as much global as it is local. Besides physical violence, it also embraces a battle of
ideas, identities and values. A defining feature of this internationalized battlespace is its
polarized nature. Within this global arena a militarised dictatorship – the SPDC – confronts a
range of external political activists and international human rights lobby groups. The
territory upon which these warring parties have pitched their tents, and on whose behalf they
claim to speak, are the peoples of Myanmar. Myanmar – or Burma – is an internationalised
battlespace where the peoples’ multiple masters have established competing regimes of truth
and legitimacy. Between and around these defining poles lie a medley of different actors –
government bureaucracies, ceasefire groups, non-ceasefire groups, businessmen, aid agencies
and donor governments – that are either trying to coerce, tax or dispossess the people, or else,
protect, educate and better them. As a means of escaping the dead end of the polarising
discourse that defines Myanmar/Burma, this report explores the chronic emergency there
from the perspective of the humanitarian principles of neutrality, impartiality and
transpare