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lsewhere in Europe. No regulation addresses energy-efficiency standards in existing houses. Ninety per cent of the current housing stock will still exist in 2020; significant investment in achieving higher standards of energy conservation in this stock, through insulation and double glazing, would bring major environmental benefits.

Water consumption

One-third of the water abstracted in England and Wales is consumed by households. Two-thirds of this drinking water is used to flush WCs, wash clothes or dishes and for bathing. Except when there are water shortages there is no expectation that households will conserve or re-cycle water. There is no consumer expectation or commitment from house builders to design homes in ways that conserve water.

The location of new housing

The Department of the Environment forecasts that there will be an increase of 4.4 million households in Britain between 1991 and 2016. The location and characteristics of these houses will have a major impact on Britain's progress to achieving a more sustainable environment. There is wide-spread agreement that more houses should be built within existing urban areas, but scepticism that the existing planning system and fiscal policies will achieve the maximum level of development on brownfield land. No mechanism exists to translate national housing requirements into effective land allocations in each local authority area in ways which take into account the impact on the environment. In particular, regional planning mechanisms are weak. There is no effective mechanism in the planning system to ensure that housebuilders and developers first consider sites within the urban area, before seeking permission to develop on greenfield sites.

Neighborhoods

All neighborhoods have an 'ecological footprint'. Neighbourhoods which are most compact and self-contained, with more local shopping, employment and community facilities, have a smaller 'footprint'. One implication of this is a potential reduction in dependence on the private car. Just under a third of all car mileage travelled each year is between home and work. Road transport is responsible for 91 per cent of carbon monoxide and 51 per cent of nitrogen dioxide in the UK. Reducing the need to use the car will make a significant contribution to more sustainable neighbourhoods. Altering car-parking requirements in statutory plans and the development of housing without any provision for cars can have big effects. Initiatives on this are being undertaken in Europe:

Eco Building Principles

The eco building principles established by the Building Biology and Ecology Institute of New Zealand (2007) are as follows:

Energy Efficiency

design passive solar energy facilities for the home using concrete floor thermal mass and pumice underfloor insulation

strive for a thermal resistance for the roof of R3.3 and R2.2 for the walls by using wool blend insulation

study life-cycle analysis of all building materials

use energy efficient appliances, solar panels and heat pump technology

centralise plumbing, insulate hot water cylinders and 'lag' hot water piping

consider resource efficiency, longevity of the building and strive for low maintena