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the self has needs, which the individual is motivated to satisfy through a set of hierarchical actions. Maslow suggested that there were lower order needs, which include the physiological need for food and water, safety needs such as security and shelter, and belongingness needs for love and affection. He went on to propose the higher order needs of esteem to satisfy the self, self actualization to exhibit self fulfillment and individualism, and finally, transcendence to explain higher levels of altruism. Later, Maslow (1954) became conscience of the danger of creating a listing of needs because of their interrelatedness by saying, “We should give up the attempt once and for all to make atomistic lists of drives or needs” (p. 25). His rationale was that a listing implies equality and isolation and neglected the dynamism between the various levels of needs.

The interesting result of Maslow's Need Hierarchy is that needs, if known, can be satiated and that individuals will take action to accomplish this satiation. Individuals, (a) are motivated for independence from these needs, (b) seek gratification of lower level needs before higher level needs, and (c) achieve changes in need with a corresponding change in cognitive awareness (Maslow, 1954). This suggests that individuals will seek higher orders, exhibit accomplishments through demonstrable actions, and are cognizant of these changes.

Much of the prevailing notion that dominated the philosophy of motivational theory was predicated upon Maslow's concept that there were basic drives that fostered motivation. McClelland questioned much of the research following Maslow because it was primarily intended to substantiate the existing theories. McClelland's (1955) experimental work showed that needs, and hence motives, can be socially acquired or learned and that these vary from person to person. In this variance, McClelland (1955) suggested that the difference resides in their need for achievement, power, or affiliation.

Herzberg extended the application of motivational theory to business beyond the advances of McClelland. Herzberg (1966) considered that individuals would be motivated based on hygiene factors (i.e.: remuneration, work conditions, or supervision) or motivators (i.e.: recognition, achievement, or growth). Herzberg's Hygiene and Motivational Factor's theory was based on the assumption that the hygiene factors alone would not provide sufficient entropy to motivate a person in the business setting. For this, motivators must be present. The assimilation of this postulate into business led to the term “job enrichment” to stimulate motivation based on the motivators not merely hygiene factors.

Advancing the discussion that motives vary from person to person, McGregor (1957) posited his Theory X and Theory Y perspective. Human behavior, he posited, vacillates between two perspectives in individuals. Individuals have an inherent dislike for work and must be coerced and controlled (Theory X) or they are self-directed and have the desire to seek higher levels of responsibility (Theory Y). McGregor's work, while not widely accepted at the time, became pervasive in the decades following its proposition (Weisbord, 1987).

Vroom (1964) perceived two missing elements in the heretofore-postulated theories. This includes, (a) the value of expectancy that an action will result in an outcome and (b) the condition of intens