英语论文网

ity of the perceived value of the outcome to the individual. In Vroom's Expectancy Theory, motivation is the product of the reward times the expectancy times the instrumentality as the individual strives toward a goal. Thus, Vroom (1964) suggested that motivation itself is not constant but varies along a continuum and ebbs and flows in intensity throughout the process of attainment.

Incorporating a more holistic approach to motivational theory, Melton (1952) suggested that individuals possess a “level of aspiration” and that this is influenced by conditioning based on successes and failures of importance to the individual. In this, the higher orders of motivation became incorporated with the importance of historical experience (i.e.: conditioning) as a basis for motivation to fulfill desires. These desires might include contributions to the welfare of other individuals, broader contributions to society, or contributions to the overall body of knowledge. Melton's work provided the basis for a variety of theories related to this construct such as social identity theory (Stryker & Serpe, 1982; Tajfel & Turner, 1985) and self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1986).

Motivations for Entrepreneurship

Carland, Carland, and Stewart (1996, p. 1) wrote, “The process is clear: entrepreneurs initiate business ventures. What is not clear is why they do so.” Caudron (1999) suggested that most theoretical motivation models in economics operate under the assumption that the individual is maximizing wage potential when deciding whether to become self-employed. However, outside of the domain of economics, the debate continued.

Social science researchers suggested that entrepreneurial motivations are more complicated. Over the course of three years, Corman, Lussier, and Nolan (1996) conducted a longitudinal study by surveying over 1,200 small business owners in New England asking them to rate the various factors that encouraged new venture creation. Their findings indicated that new venture creation is a result of internal motivators as well as external support factors. Their findings suggested that while the volitional theories were confirmed, other principle-centered issues such as quality of life issues and government policies and regulations were also influential (Corman, Lussier, and Nolan, 1996).

Bandura (1986) posited his Self Concept Theory to expand motivational theory beyond monetary and basic considerations. The basis for this theory was that individuals would act based on personal factors, their behavior, and their interaction with obstacles in the attainment of goals. In this, the concept of self-belief became important to the discussion of motivation. Self Concept Theory presents a philosophy of individuals as proactive and self-regulating entities striving toward higher-level goals (Bandura, 1986).

Similarly, Covey (1991) suggested the basic nature of humans is to act and that the highest level of this is principle-centered action. Covey (1991) suggested the importance of principles, morals, and social responsibility in goal attainment into the motivational discourse. Yet, questions remained among researchers as to just what these principle-centered actions were and whether this premise adequately explains the totality of motivational factors in humans.

Leveraging Melton's contention of ambition, the self-concept theorists su