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cy can be divided into the cognitive linguistics approach to word classes, the word-class extension, and their typological research. In the meantime, recent attention has also been focused on the wider applications of word classes, which are peripheral research for this current thesis and will also be briefly outlined in this section. 

Discussions on the division of word classes have continued in recent years (Yuan, 2000; Baker, 2003; Schachter & Shopen, 2007; Zhang & Gao, 2008; Bisang, 2011), which mainly fall into the field of cognitive linguistics. Although the classification criteria vary, so far, no classification has been completely divorced from meaning (Chu & Yang, 2022). On the basis of cognitive grammar, Langacker (1987b) analyzes the semantic characterization of nouns and verbs and proposes that verbs emphasize temporality and are characterized by sequential scanning, while nouns are characterized by summary scanning. What’s more, the main grammatical categories, such as nouns and verbs, can be defined according to their semantic contents (Langacker, 1987b). In this regard, Zhang and Gao (2008) argue that semantics based on general cognitive ability is more systematic and complete than traditional grammar that defines word classes by their simple meaning. Furthermore, the cognitive semantics approach to word classes also affirms the role of distributional analysis, verifying the empirical foundations of word classes and their meanings. 

Chapter Three Theoretical Framework .............................. 23

3.1 Conceptual Space Theory ................................ 23

3.2 Prototype Theory ................................ 26

3.3 Conceptual Metaphor and Metonymy .......................... 28

Chapter Four Prototype Effects of Word Classes of English and Chinese High-Frequency Words ............ 32

4.1 Cognitive Hierarchies of English and Chinese Word Classes ................. 32

4.1.1 Word-Class Distributions of English and Chinese High-Frequency Words ................................ 32

4.1.2 Frequency Effects of English and Chinese Word Classes ............. 35

Chapter Five Cognitive Typological Explanations for English and Chinese Word-Class Prototypicality and Extension .......... 63

5.1 Cognitive Typological Universals and Variations in English and  Chinese Word-Class Prototypicality ............... 63

5.1.1 Common Evolution for the Isolating Language and Distinct Mighty Categories ......................... 63

5.1.2 Spatio-Temporal Preferences in English and Chinese ................... 67

Chapter Five Cognitive Typological Explanations for English and Chinese Word-Class Prototypicality and Extension 

5.1 Cognitive Typological Universals and Variations in English and Chinese Word-Class Prototypicality

Proceeding to the discussion of the similarities and differences in English and Chinese word classes, this section will provide an explanation for their prototypicality mainly from a cognitive typology perspective. It concerns the convergent language types, the different mighty categories, and the temporal or spatial dominance in two languages. 

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