英语论文网

is knowledge attained?

Contemplation seems to be a key factor in this journey inward. The Katha Upanisad states that “when a man has understanding, is mindful and always pure; he does reach that final step, from which he is not reborn again.” [26] It is necessary that we become detached from the desires of the material world. Only when one’s sole desire is the self, can one break the cycle of samsara.

The writers of the Upanisads also warn against a false sense of understanding, however. We must remain humble in our search for brahman. After all, it is only in the final release from the cycle of death and rebirth that we will truly attain brahman. The Kena Upanisad states, “If you think ‘I know it well’- perhaps you do know ever so little the visible appearance of brahman; there is that part of it you know and there is the part that is among the gods. And so I think what you must do is to reflect on it, on that unknown part of it.” [27]

In the later Upanisads there is trend towards an idea of theistic grace that aids one in the attainment of brahman. The Katha Upanisad states, “Without desires and free from sorrow, a man perceives by the creator’s grace the grandeur of the self.” [28] Brahman itself essentially becomes deified in the Svetasvatara Upanisad. Liberation is found in God who “rules over both the perishable and the self. By meditating on him, by striving towards him, and further, in the end by becoming the same reality as him, all illusion disappears.” [29] Brahman is still the ultimate goal, but in this case, Brahman is personified.

By this point in the evolution of the Upanisads, the focus had turned entirely away from ritual sacrifice, including internal forms of the ritual as expressed through mantras and allegorical interpretations of the ritual actions. The only goal that one must pursue is brahman. Some imagine brahman as God and some as a more abstract reality. Nonetheless, the method for attaining brahman always involves the acknowledgement of one’s own atman, one’s brahman nature.

The most frontal attack on the Vedic sacrificial system is found in the Mundaka Upanisad. The author draws a distinction between higher and lower knowledge. The physical knowledge of the sacrifice is in conflict with the ultimate goal of that which is beyond the physical and will provide release from the physical realm. “Deeming sacrifices and gifts as the best, the imbeciles know nothing better. When they have enjoyed their good work atop the firmament, they return to this abject world. But those in the wilderness, calm and wise, who live a life of penance and faith, as they beg their food; through the sun’s door they go, spotless, to where that immortal Person is, that immutable self.” [30] The sacrifice is seen as a pointless endeavor because it dwells in the material and absolute truth is only gained through perceiving truth beyond the physical. The knowledge of atman and the attainment of brahman is incompatible with the sacrificial mechanism. Ritual, specifically sacrifice, serves to trap one in samsara.

Another important achievement of the Upanisads is the beginnings of the concept of karma. Karma defined literally simply means action. The Upanisads, however, begin to discuss karma as our actions, thoughts, and lessons we have learned that determine our place in this life and in the next. Our actions have cos