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Cultural geography is divided by time into the old cultural geography before the 1980s and the New Cultural Geography after the 1980s, the former of which is usually referred to as the Berkeley School and the latter as the Birmingham School. “Geography” and “Culture” are two clues that run through the development trajectory of cultural geography: one is the evolution of geography from empiricism to positivism, environmental determinism, environmental possibilism, humanism, and new Marxism; the other is the repeated debates about the definition of “culture”.

The development of geography can be divided into three stages as outlined by British novelist Joseph Conrad in his essay “Geography and Explorers”: the “fabulous geography” stage, the “militant geography” stage, and the “triumphant geography” stage. With the strengthening of Western industrial power, geographers turned to field research and created modern geography. Geography evolved from empiricism to positivism. Human geography and physical geography are closely related, with the most important theory being Darwin’s ideas. Darwin’s ideas had two main impacts on geography: first, they marked the replacement of theology with modern scientific logic to interpret the relationship between the natural environment and human beings, completing what Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno called the “disenchantment of the world”; second, the application of Darwin’s theory of “survival of the fittest” to geographical research led to the emergence of environmental determinism. Environmental determinists did not see the exotic cultures discovered during geographical exploration as cultural differences, but rather viewed them as barbaric and uncivilized expressions, even proposing the theory that higher latitudes are more civilized and lower latitudes are more backward. One reason why environmental determinism was so popular in the 19th century is that its underlying Western-centrism legitimized European imperialism.

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1.2 Landscapes of Memory

The landscape constitutes a natural topic in geography. The study of cultural landscapes in cultural geography can be roughly divided into four stages, undergoing three paradigm shifts: the first stage in the early 20th century saw the Berkeley School, which first introduced the cultural landscapes as a research subject in geography, emphasizing the material expression of visible landscapes. The second stage in the 1970s saw humanistic geographers, such as Donald Meinig and Tuan Yi-Fu, paying tribute to and reshaping the Berkeley School’s approach, emphasizing the experience of landscapes as a way of seeing. The third stage, from the mid-1980s onwards, saw the emergence of New Cultural Geography, represented by geographers like Cosgrove and Daniels, emphasizing the dual nature of landscapes as both material and symbolic expressions of power. The fourth stage, from the 21st century onwards, involves interdisciplinary studies combining landscape research with topics such as memory and justice, creating new academic frontiers in the study of landscapes of memory and Landscapes of Justice.

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