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gathered from
participants build on the information from previous subjects
and the accumulated data can offer a significant depth of
information on the phenomenon. As a result the researcher
may discover that no new material is emerging; at this point,
data gathering usually stops (Parahoo, 2006).
Ethical considerations
In qualitative research the most common tools used for
data collection are interview and participant observation.
The participants are therefore known to the researcher and
anonymity is not possible. The researcher must therefore assure
participants that their identities will not be revealed to the
reader and the raw data collected will not be released to any
third party (Parahoo, 2006). Both interviews and observations
in qualitative research can give rise to ethical dilemmas.
Table 3. Approaches in qualitative research
Origin Broad term for all qualitative Symbolic interactionism Various schools of Cultural anthropology
research and may have its origins and social sciences philosophy
in any of the other disciplines
Aims Description of the issue under Generation of theory from the data Description/interpretation/ Direct description of a
study Modification/extension of existing understanding/meaning of group, culture or community
theory the lived experience/
phenomenon under study
Sample Purposive/convenience Initial sampling of people able to give Purposive Purposive, non-probability,
information on the topic. This is followed criterion-based
by theoretical sampling where further
sampling is guided by the analysis and
emerging theory
Data Interviews often semi-structured Interviews, participant observation, Unstructured, formal, Observation, interviews and
collection diaries and other documents, multiple interviews, examination of documents in
researcher’s own experience written texts, e.g. diaries the field
Data Generic data analysis tools, Constant, comparative analysis – data Data analysis tools vary Description, analysis and
analysis e.g. Miles and Huberman (1994) collection and analysis are linked from depending on school of interpretation of the culture
the beginning of the research philosophy adopted
Findings Description of the phenomenon Description of the emergent theory, Description/interpretation The culture as experienced by
under study incorporating the cultural processes of the phenomenon under its members is presented
and meanings study
Phenomenology/
Generic qualitative research Grounded theory hermeneutics Ethnography
that ethical principles are being adhered to and that
participants are protected from potential sources of harm
(Burns and Grove, 1999). It is important to note that within
qualitative research, ethical issues often arise at different
stages in the study and may be discussed when they occur
rather than under a specific heading.
Data collection
In a qualitative study any number of strategies can be
adopted when collecting data, including non-numerical
questionnaires with open-ended questions, interviews
(semi-structured and unstructured), participant observation,
written texts such as diaries or emails, and historical or
contemporary documents. The researcher should outline
the rationale for the chosen method of data collection
and offer sufficient information of the process. If using a
particular approach, such as grounded theory