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2.1 Definitions of Washback
A synonym of “washback,，is"backwash" (Hughes, 1989)，which can be found in certain dictionaries and is defined as"an unexpected and usually undesirable，subsidiary result or reaction" (Spolsky, 1994:55).Some researchers used the term "washback" to describe the effects brought about by testswhile others preferred "backwash". There exist numerous definitions given by variousresearchers.Buck (1988:17) describes washback as follows: "There is a natural tendency for bothteachers and students to tailor their classroom activities to the demands of the test,especially when the test is very important to the future of the students, and pass rates areused as a measure of teacher success". Hughes (1989:1) gives a simpler definition as "theeffect of testing on teaching and learning". Shohamy defines washback as "the utilizationof external language tests to affect and drive foreign language learning the school context",and she notes that "this phenomenon is the result of the strong authority of external testingand the major impact it has on the lives of test takers" (1992:513). Later，Shohamy (1996，
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2.2 The Nature of Wash back
Wash back itself is described as "neutral" as it could be interpreted as being eitherpositive or negative (Buck，1988; Hamp-Lyons, 1997). Alderson &Wall (1993) suggestedthat any test may bring about beneficial or detrimental washback effects. So the nature ofwashback can be considered either positive if a test brings desired changes or negative ifthe final result (such as learning principles, course objectives, etc.) does not reach itsoriginal anticipation. Pearson (1988:107) argued that "good tests will be more or less directly usable asteaching-learning activities. Similarly，good teaching-learning tasks will be more or lessdirectly usable for testing purposes, even though practical or financial constrains limit thepossibilities." Usually a "good" test would make teachers cover their subjects morethoroughly, and complete the syllabuses within the prescribed time limits. When comparedwith judgment, evaluation is a relatively more objective tool, which may provide suitablefeedback for teachers to know students, overall situations to offer needed help or evenadjust their teaching plans. Also teachers are often said to use tests to encourage students tofocus more on the lesson，to be well prepared for the test，to work harder to achieve goodperformance and so on. So tests would strengthen students' motivations to pay more effortsto study to have a sense of achievement and get enough desirable rewards. Just as Alderson& Wall (1993) note that teachers and learners will be motivated to fulfill their teaching andlearning goals. Finally all these would promote both teaching and learning. While in abroader sense, according to Cheng (2005)，decision makers use the authority power ofhigh-stakes testing to achieve the goals of teaching and learning, such as the introductionof new textbooks and curriculum.
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Chapter Three Research Methodology.......... 25
3.1 Introduction  .........   25
3.2 Research Questons......... 25
3.3 Participants.........   25
3.3.1 Teachers.........   26
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