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a student’s active involvement in a learning activity” (p. 150). Philp and Duchesne (2016) defined engagement as the “heightened attention and involvement” of students in learning (p. 51). A common thread in the definitions of engagement is that “action” is at the core of engagement, an important feature distinguishing engagement from motivation (Mercer 2019). Although it has been widely accepted that engagement is a multi-dimensional construct, researchers have not achieved an agreement on the type and number of dimensions (Christenson et al. 2012). Conceptualizations for the dimensions of engagement have evolved dramatically over time. For example, Marks (2000) assumed that engagement was a combination of behavioral and emotional aspects. Fredricks et al. (2004) conceptualized engagement as a three-dimensional construct containing behavioral, emotional, and cognitive dimensions. The three-dimensional model has been widely accepted in engagement research. Behavioral engagement consists of the quantity of effort students spend on academic tasks, the quality of their involvement in academic, social, or extracurricular activities, and the extent to which they are actively engaged in the learning process. Behavioral engagement is crucial in achieving positive academic outcomes and preventing students from dropout (Fredricks et al. 2004; Sang & Hiver 2021). Students’ behavioral engagement in L2 learning can be reflected by, for example, the word count produced in a task and the amount of time on a task (Qiu & Lo 2017). Emotional engagement involves students’ feelings or perceptions about learning materials, teachers, peers, and schools (Fredricks et al. 2004). Individuals can be identified as emotionally engaged when they generate task-facilitating emotions such as enjoyment and enthusiasm. Expressions of task-withdrawing emotions, such as anxiety and boredom, represent emotional disengagement or disaffection (Reeve 2012; Mercer 2019). Individuals emotionally engaging in language learning have “a positive, purposeful, willing, and autonomous disposition” toward the language learning content, teachers, and peers (Svalberg 2009: 247). Cognitive engagement refers to the amount of intellectual effort that learners put into the learning process and their mental activities. Cognitively engaged individuals are willing to actively exert mental effort to comprehend intricate knowledge points or learn new skills (Fredricks et al. 2004; Hiver et al. 2021). Students’ cognitive engagement in language learning can manifest through self-repairs during language output (Qiu & Lo 2017).  

Chapter Three  Research Model ............................. 19

3.1 Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions ................... 19

3.2 The I/D Model of Curiosity .......................... 20

3.3 The Four-Dimensional Engagement Model ................ 21

Chapter Four  Research Design ................... 24

4.1 Research Questions ............................. 24

4.2 Research Participants ................................. 25

4.3 Research Instruments ................................... 25 

Chapter Five  Results and Discussion ....................... 30

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