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case Stuidies (Reichers & Schneider, 2000). This research status is largely due to the relative recency of the construct to the area of industrial-organizational psychology (Pettigrew, 1979). In fact, the majority of the theorizing and research regarding culture and its effect on organizational variables has been done only within the past decade. The limited research that has been conducted, however, suggests that culture may be a useful way of looking at organizations and examining the consequences of assumptions held by members. The evidence supporting the usefulness of culture in the understanding of organizations will first be reviewed. Then a variety of approaches to studying culture will be examined.
The relationship of culture to organizational outcomes is important to research in organizational behavior for a number of reasons. Because they are based on shared beliefs about what behaviors and attitudes are appropriate, cultural values determine what kinds of human resource strategies will be conceived. In turn, support mechanisms initiated by the organization will impact the attitudes and perceptions of individuals and subsequent outcomes such as commitment, satisfaction, and productivity. Culture may also be able to explain why some organizations can adapt easily to new challenges and flourish in a changing environment, while other organizations are not able to handle change successfully.
2.5.1 Employee Attitudes and Perceptions
An entire body of research has explored the relationship between the attitudes employees have about their jobs and their level of work productivity. One example of particular concern to organizations has been the demonstrated link between a lack of employee satisfaction and withdrawal behaviors such as tardiness, employee theft, and intent to leave (Hulin, 1991). A relationship has also been found between satisfaction and positive outcomes, such as level of commitment and organizational citizenship behaviors (Ostroff, 2002). Because employee attitudes are related to these and other organizational outcomes, it is important that their relationship to culture be examined (Kopelman, Brief,& Guzzo, 2000).
One recent study of military organizations (Roberts, Rousseau,& LaPorte, 2000) found a significant relationship between behavioral norms and satisfaction, person-organization fit, propensity to stay, and role conflict. Cultures described as “satisfaction-oriented” with an emphasis on achievement, self-expression, affiliation, and helpful norms were associated with increased satisfaction, fit, retention, and decreased role conflict. On the other hand, “security-oriented” cultures that had strong norms of power, perfectionism, conventionality, and approval were found to be negatively related to these individual outcomes. Although these findings appear promising and increase understanding of the effects of culture, research exploring the relationship between culture and individual variables using civilian work organizations should be done. Clearly, the effect of culture on the attitudes and perceptions of employees deserves further investigation.
2.5.2 Organizational Performance
So far, there has been little solid evidence regarding the impact of organizational culture on measures of performance. The few research studies that have been conducted are encouraging, however. For example, a recent study has demonstrated that organizational culture has important consequences for job per