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al shift from thinking about individuals to thinking about relationships (Hoffinan, 1981; Nichols, & Schwartz, 2001).
2.4 The Influence of Culture on Human Resource Management (HRM)
Hofstede (1980) and Schneider (1998) stated that, norms, organizational values and artifacts make up of cultural assumptions frame, and the managers perceive as being consistent with their basic assumptions, and so make influence on the process of human resource management. It is stated that cultural values have influenced on a set of organizational behaviors such as styles of conflict, preferred Leadership category, endorsed norms, problem thinking and solving styles and extent of social loafing (Smith, 1998).
Westwood (1992) and Redding (1993) state that regardless of political or commercial institutions, in the society influenced greatly by Chinese Confucian values, and in family, or organization and even the country, the leaders are often seen as the “head”. The “head” must set a personal example of the morality commitment, which requires of his or her subordinate (Bond, 1992). The leaders, as Bond adds, must be helpful, friendly, courteous, and flexible when in dealing with subordinates, which indicates an important aspect of employer-employee relationships. Therefore, the clear superior-subordinate relationship may play in the organizations influenced highly by Confucian values.
What is more, there are five canonical relations focused by Confucian values. And sovereignty-subordinate is one of them. The superior has control over the subordinates and those people in the higher level accomplish their responsibility as “leaders”, and this reflects the ruler-subject relationship perceived by Confucian values. This situation is also because of the Confucius’s belief that the type of leaders often makes influence on the directions of the subordinates. Su, Yang & Hulpke (1998) state the Confucius’s “The great learning” - “Yao and Shun set up their kingdom with benevolence and the people followed them. Chieh and Chau set up their kingdom with power and violence and the people followed them as well.” This example indicated that leaders who lead their people by benevolence, later their subordinates would be benevolent to one another, on the other side, leaders who set violent examples would make encourage to their subordinates or followers to behave violence to one another.
In Confucian values, authority has been accepted as psychological reality, which can be seen as ritualized power in society. Lu (1983) stated, family, group and leader of country (they have obtained the responsibility for the money and power) have the precedence over all the other individuals, which is the ideal aim of the Confucians. All of the above statements make emphasis of Confucian values on doing influence on the HRM practices in the organizations, while superior-subordinate relationship exist as a structured form of firm.
2.5 The Impact of Culture on Individual and Organizational Outcomes
Only recently have empirical research and critical reviews of the culture construct begun to appear in the literature. Conspicuously lacking are comprehensive and integrative studies of the phenomenon of organizational culture and its impact (Organizational Culture and Leadership by Schein, 2002 is one exception).
Much of the work in the domain of culture has been descriptive in nature, concerned with definitional issues and focused on construct elaboration using Specific