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n into account
here: national wealth. Both Small Power
Distance and Individualism go together with
greater national wealth (per capita gross national
product). The relationship between
Individualism and Wealth is quite strong, as
Figure 6 shows. In the upper part (Collectivist)
we find only the poorer countries, with
Japan as a borderline exception. In the lower
part (Individualism), we find only the
wealthier countries. If we look at the poorer
and the wealthier countries separately, there
is no longer any relationship between Power
Distance and Individualism.
THE CULTURAL RELATIVITY OF MANAGEMENT
THEORIES
Of particular interest in the context of this
discussion is the relative position of the
United States on the four dimensions. Here is
how the United States rates:
• On Power Distance at rank 15
out of the 40 countries (measured from below),
it is below average but it is not as low
as a number of other wealthy countries.
• On Uncertainty Avoidance at
rank 9 out of 40, it is well below average.
• On Itidividualism at rank 40 out
of 40, the United States is the single most individualist
country of the entire set (followed
closely by Australia and Great Britain).
• On Masculinity at rank 28 out of
40, it is well above average.
For about 60 years, the United
States has been the world's largest producer
and exporter of management theories covering
such key areas as motivation, leadership,
and organization. Before that, the centers of
theorizing about what we now call "management"
lay in the Old World. We can trace
the history of management thought as far
back as we want—at least to parts of the Old
Testament of the Bible, and to ancient
Greece (Plato's The Laws and The Republic,
350 B.c.), Sixteenth-century European
"management" theorists include Niccolo
Machiavelli (Italy) and Thomas More (Great
Britain); early twentieth-century theorists include
Max Weber (Germany) and Henri
Fayol (France).

ARG
AUL
AUT
BEL
BRA
CAN
CHL
COL
DEN
FIN
Argentina
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Brazil
Canada
Chile
Colombia
Denmark
Finland
THE4(
(Showing Abbreviations
FRA
GBR
GER
GRE
HOK
IND
IRA
IRE
ISR
ITA
France
Great Britain
Germany (West)
Greece
Hong Kong
India
Iran
Ireland
Israel
Italy
) COUNTRIES
used in Figures 5, 6, and 7.)
JAP
MEX
NET
NOR
N2L
PAK
PER
PHI
POR
SAF
Japan
Mexico
Netherlands
Norway
New Zealand
Pakistan
Peru
Philippines
Portugal
South Africa
SIN
SPA
SWE
SWI
TAl
THA
TUR
USA
VEN
YUG
Singapore
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Taiwan
Thailand
Turkey
United States
Venezuela
Yugoslavia

Today we are all culturally conditioned.
We see the world in the way we have
learned to see it. Only to a limited extent can
we, in our thinking, step out of the boundaries
imposed by our cultural conditioning.
This applies to the author of a theory as
much as it does to the ordinary citizen:
Theories reflect the cultural environment in
which they were written. If this is true, Italian,
British, German, and French theories
reflect the culture of Italy, Britain, Germany,
and France of their day, and American
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