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ies reflect the culture of the United
States of its day. Since most present-day
theorists are middle-class intellectuals, their
theories reflect a national intellectual middle-
class culture background.
Now we ask the question; To what
extent do theories developed in one country
and reflecting the cultural boundaries of that
country apply to other countries? Do American
management theories apply in Japan? In
India? No management theorist, to my
knowledge, has ever explicitly addressed
himself or herself to this issue. Most probably
assume that their theories are universally
valid. The availability of a conceptual
framework built on four dimensions of national
culture, in conjunction with the cultural
maps of the world, makes it possible to
see more clearly where and to what extent
theories developed in one country are likely
to apply elsewhere. In the remaining sections
of this article 1 shall look from this viewpoint
at most popular American theories of management
in the areas of motivation, leadership,
and organization.
MOTIVATION
Why do people behave as they do? There is a
great variety of theories of human motivation.
According to Sigmund Freud, we are
impelled to act by unconscious forces within
us, which he called our id. Our conscious
conception of ourselves—our ego—tries to
control these forces, and an equally unconscious
internal pilot—our superego—criticizes
the thoughts and acts of our ego and
causes feelings of guilt and anxiety when the
ego seems to be giving in to the id. The
superego is the product of early socialization,
mainly learned from our parents when
we were young children.
Freud's work has been extremely
influential in psychology, but he is rarely
quoted in the context of management theories.
The latter almost exclusively refer to
motivation theories developed later in the
United States, particularly those of David
McClelland, Abraham Maslow, Frederick

 

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