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l Vision). Bernick and Cervero (1997, p. 5) defined transit-oriented development (TOD) as, “a compact, mixed-use community, centred around a transit station that, by design, invites residents, workers, and shoppers to drive their cars less and ride mass transit more”. But an isolated transit node could not sustain the development and a real challenge in cities like Shanghai became to connect the nodes in a larger framework of ‘city wide transport development strategy’ (Pan and Zhang 2006). The regional TOD network became a ‘transit-oriented corridor’. Cervero (1998) recommended that this was the most sustainable pattern of urbanization in megacities of the world leading to a ‘Transit Metropolis’.

 

However, as the mass transit gradually became popular, the development around the nodes grew rapidly and beyond the control of transit companies. Soon a cloud of private-public partnerships emerged. The developments took shape of economic exploitation in the wake of short-term goals of private investors. Transit routes were broken down into profitable chunks and further privatization of networks led to a “splintering urbanism” (Graham and Marvin 2001). As the developments boosted one urban core at the cost of others. The main criticism of TOD was that at its core, it was a market-based concept catering to investor’s profits over public accessibility. It led to gratification of lifestyle and business performances creating more plural and heterogeneous spaces. Without public intervention, the romanticised nostalgia of healthy street life, corner stores and regional character could assume the shape of Walk-Mart like big-box stores, generic shopping malls and other instances of capitalist-globalization (Andrusz et al.1996; Polzin 1999; Tsenkova and Nedovic-Budic 2006; Peters and Novy 2012). There was also a lack of discussion on architecture, urban design and the general sense of quality of place. The critiques advocated that TOD encouraged inner-urban gentrification. Edwards (2009, p.23) wrote that, “(TODs) Its limited provision of affordable social housing to rent and its strong provision of corporate office space, has been the main source of conflict […] Regeneration is not seen as primarily a process serving the low- and middle-income people in whose name regeneration policy was developed: rather it is seen […] as essentially a business activity aimed at growth and competitiveness”.

 

1.2.1 Urban Renaissance in Europe

 

Transit-oriented “New Urbanism” agenda of North America (Calthorpe and Fulton 2001; Cervero 2004; Dittmar and Ohland 2003; Dunphy et al. 2005; Dutton 2000) reached Europe with the corresponding “urban renaissance” discourse, especially in Great Britain (Urban Task Force UK 1999; Bodenschatz 2005; 2006; Colomb 2007; Peters 2009; Peters and Novy 2012). However paradigm had changed by now with the advent of high speed trains (discussed in detail in the next chapter). High-speed trains gave momentum to urban renaissance agenda by connecting key cities in the process of decentralization, especially within the 500 km. This in turn compounded the impacts of transportation on land-use as large portions of cent本论文由英语论文网提供整理，提供论文代写，英语论文代写，代写论文，代写英语论文，代写留学生论文，代写英文论文，留学生论文代写相关核心关键词搜索。