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f the weighted correlation was significantly greater than in studies reporting main effects (χ2 = 14.23, 1 df, p < 0.00). For experimental studies, the average ranking of the weighted correlation was statistically greater (χ2 = 58.61, 1 df, p < 0.00) than for cross-sectional studies, where a survey was administered. For studies using college students as subjects, the average ranking of the weighted correlation was statistically greater (χ2 = 100.34, 1 df, p < 0.00) than for studies using non-student subjects. Finally, studies using subjects from the US had a significantly greater average ranking (χ2 = 49.78, 1 df, p < 0.00) of the weighted correlation than studies using non-US subjects. The practical and theoretical implications associated with each observed effect are substantial. These are discussed in the next section.

 

DISCUSSION

This meta-analysis confirms a good portion of the 30+ years of celebrity endorsement literature. More meaningfully, it also ties together much of that literature – resulting in a more conclusive picture.

 

Negative information about the celebrity exercised the largest impact (R = −0.62) on celebrity endorsement effectiveness in advertising. This result underscored the high risk associated with using celebrity endorsers as well as the huge impact negative information about that celebrity can have on consumer perceptions. This finding also suggests that when negative information about a celebrity endorser emerges, the revelation can dilute the equity of the product/brand associated with the celebrity. The necessity, whenever possible, to pre-empt the arrival of negative information about celebrity endorsers is clearly confirmed.

 

The results of this meta-analysis likewise infer that positive celebrity information and image can also transfer to the product/brand. But of equal importance, these results infer negative information transfers to the product/brands, as well. This implies firms should exercise extreme caution when choosing celebrity endorsers. Firms should also develop quick response contingency plans to countermand any possible negative information/events. The likely payoff associated with adopting the right celebrity endorser, as well as the high costs associated with tapping the wrong option, again are emphasised.

 

Source expertise and trustworthiness invariably contribute to source credibility. But prior research implies source expertise and trustworthiness may make independent contributions to source effectiveness (Mowen & Minor 2006). In a confirmatory manner, this meta-analysis revealed that celebrity 'trustworthiness', and 'expertise' along with 'attractiveness' each exercised more influence on effectiveness than did the celebrity 'credibility' source effect. This suggests that a source credibility construct composed of trustworthiness, expertise, and attractiveness dimensions should be employed in future studies but credibility may also encompass other dimensions.

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