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An Overview Geoff Nunberg of Xerox PARC, Palo Alto, CA, and Stanford University Tom Wasow of Stanford University [Prerequisites for Language Use][The Domain of Linguistics] [Language as a Formal System][Language as a Human Phenomenon] [Language as a Social Phenomenon][Applications of Linguistics] An Example of Language Use Pat: Why did the chicken cross the road? Chris: I give up. Pat: To get to the other side. Most of us heard this joke when we were small children and find nothing remarkable in the ability to engage in such exchanges. But a bit of reflection reveals that even such a mundane use of language involves an amazing combination of abilities. Think about it: Pat makes some vocal noises, with the effect that Chris entertains thoughts of a scenario involving a fowl and a thoroughfare. This leads to an exchange of utterances, possibly laughter, and the conviction by both parties that Pat has 'told a joke'. Prerequisites for Language Use What does it take to make communication through language succeed? Here are just a few of the many things that are necessary for the exchange above Pat's first two words 'why did' sound exactly the same as 'wide id'. Breaking the stream of sounds into words requires that Chris pays attention to the wider context and knows what makes sense and what doesn't. Words like 'chicken' and 'cross' have lots of meanings (consider, for example, one gangster saying to another, 'You won't cross me because you're chicken'). To conjure up the image of a bird and a highway, Chris must identify the right choices for these. Pat has to know to say 'cross', not 'crossed' or 'crossing' in this context. The order of words could not be 'Why the chicken did cross the road?' or any of lots of other conceivable orders. Chris's utterance ('I give up') is entirely conventional, signalling recognition that Pat is posing a riddle, and that Chris is ready to hear the punchline. The recognition that the first sentence was a riddle again depends on its relation to the wider context and cultural knowledge. The punchline is not a complete sentence; Chris must recognize that it means that the chicken crossed the road in order to get to the other side. In order to get the joke, Chris must know that answers to such 'why' questions normally involve some longer-term objective. The Domain of Linguistics Linguistics, the study of language, concerns itself with all aspects of how people use language and what they must know in order to do so. As a universal characteristic of the species, language has always held a special fascination for human beings, and the history of linguistics as a systematic field of study goes back almost three thousand years. Modern linguists concern themselves with many different facets of language, from the physical properties of the sound waves in utterances to the intentions of speakers towards others in conversations and the social contexts in which conversations are embedded. The branches of linguistics are concerned with how languages are structured, how languages are used, and how they change. Language as a Formal System Linguistic structure can be studied at many different levels. The sounds of language can be investigated by looking at the physics of the speech stream and by studying the physiology of the vocal tract and auditory system. A more psychological approach is also possible, namely considering what physical