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ities, CSIRO and other research organizations.

2.2 Commonalities in the Developed Nations

After gathering the information on the efforts made by the developing states to bridge the gap between industry and academia, we managed to discover following commonalities:

The initiatives were triggered by the internal causes, not the external competition;

The government intervention was minimum once a law or act was established, autonomy was given to both industries and universities, along with incentives in certain cases;

The universities themselves made the effort to bring about the change in legislation, or at least help provide a model for the change;

The operative bodies were all established within the nation, using none or minimum aid from the international policies.

CHAPTER 3

3. Efforts for U-I Collaboration in Asia

In the following chapter we have considered the some Asian countries both developed like Japan and also rapidly growing economies of the world China. We have tried to understand the problems that these countries have faced in the past, what were the issues with which they were confronted, and what actions were taken by their governments and legislative bodies to encourage the university industry collaboration.

Historical Perspective of Asian Countries

As a part of our research we found that universities in different Asian countries had different degrees of autonomy to engage in contractual collaboration with the private sector. In Japan and Korea, State-owned universities were treated as part of the government and were not allowed to operate as independent entities and because of this unique legal arrangement, they had no legal status, and did not have the capacity to write a contract or own patents. We find that this is particularly important because top universities in most Asian countries were often State-run. Such State-funded universities normally did not have a legal status, which would allow them to claim ownership over the results of their research activities, employ researchers, write contracts with private companies and take on legal obligations if necessary. Rather, they were deemed part of the government itself and were obliged to follow a meticulous process to obtain permission to work with the private sector. Professors were government employees and because of this, they were not allowed to work outside the university. In order to pave the way for more operational and efficient U-I relations, specific actions were taken.

Recently, the state realized the benefits and feasibility of university autonomy in certain matters, for instance the matters of patency in their research work, and the universities were empowered to deal with these issues. Consequently, many Asian universities moved towards establishing an office within or outside the universities to deal with the complex task of managing Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) and transferring technologies, developed in their laboratories. They were mostly emulations of the Technology Licensing Offices (TLOs) or Technology Transfer Offices (TTOs) of US universities. In most of the Asian universities that conduct research, offices of this kind have been set up, although in some cases they are not called TLOs or TTOs. In certain countries where technology transfer from univ